The cell(plasma)

membrane:
structure and
function
DR.PAMEL A.B.LUGWISHA
M.D, MSC ANATOMY
The cell’s plasma membrane defines the boundary
of the cell and determines the nature of its contact
with the environment.
It is a limiting membrane that encloses the cell,
making a boundary between one cell and the
other, and also between cells and external(extra
cellular space)environment.
In this way, the cell secures its inside and prevents
unnecessary movements of materials to and from
the cell to the extracellular space.
Substances that move into and from the cell have
to be allowed by the cell membrane, and without
it a cell cannot survive.
The plasma membrane also provides a closed
continuous boundary allowing communication
and adhesion between adjacent cells and between
the cells and intercellular connective tissue
elements.
Some organelles such as the mitochondria, Golgi
bodies, rough endoplasmic reticulum and the cell
nucleus have a plasma membrane(membrane
bound organelles).
This arrangement allows the organelles to perform
their functions without being affected by the cell
environment.
The plasma membrane that surround organelles are thinner and may have a different chemical
composition characteristic to each individual cell.
The plasma membrane has some degree of elasticity and if broken locally it is normally repaired
but if the injury is too great the cell may die due to excessive leakage of the cytoplasm.
Structure of the cell membrane
In 1972, S.J.Singer and Garth.L. Nicolson proposed a model that explained in a better manner
both microscopic observations and the function of the plasma membrane.
It was called the fluid mosaic model, describing the structure of the plasma membrane as a
mosaic of components including:
Phospholipids
Cholesterol
Proteins
Carbohydrates
These components are able to flow and change position while maintaining the basic integrity of
the plasma membrane.
The plasma membrane measures 5-10nm(average 7.5nm) thick , and is described biochemically
and morphologically.
The morphological structure is described by using electron microscopes and the molecular
structure describes various molecules that assemble to form the plasma membrane.
Observations by electron microscopes indicate that the plasma membrane is composed of 2
dark(electron dense) lines and a pale(electron lucent)line.
The 2 dark lines form the outer and inner layers and in between them is a pale intermediate
layer.
Biochemical studies have showed that the plasma membrane is made up of lipid, protein and
carbohydrate molecules.
The lipids exist in two layers into which globular proteins are embedded at some intervals to
form a mosaic with the lipid layer.
1. Membrane lipids-the lipid molecules are assembled to form 2 layers, one facing the external
environment(extracellular space) and the other one faces the cytoplasm.
The lipid bilayer provides the backbone of the membrane serving as a barrier to the passage of
the most water soluble molecules.
Membrane lipid molecules constitute about 50% of the total mass
of plasma membrane and they include phospholipids, cholesterol
and glycolipids.
Most of the membrane lipids have hydrophilic(polar) ends that face
both the outward and the cytoplasmic side of the cell.
In between the two hydrophilic surfaces of the plasma membrane,
is a hydrophobic or non polar region.
The phospholipids are cylindrical in shape forming a bilayer in the
aqueous environment.
They are most abundant membrane lipids and they include
sphingomyelin and inositol phospholipids..
These molecules are synthesized by smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Cholesterol- the amount of cholesterol varies from cell to cell, for example it is present in large
amounts in the erythrocytes(red blood ells) than in hepatocytes(liver cells).
The presence of cholesterol increases flexibility and mechanical strength of the plasma membrane, it
also decreases the permeability of plasma membrane to small water soluble molecules.
Glycolipids- are sugar containing lipid molecules that account for 5% of all lipids and they are only
found in the outer half(non cytoplasmic) of the lipid bilayer.
Examples of membrane glycolipids are gangliosides.
Sugar is added to the lipids in the Golgi apparatus.
The following are possible functions of glycolipids:
Act as electrical insulators in the neurons(abundant in myelin sheath of neurons)
Are involved in cell recognition
They facilitate cells to bind to the extracellular matrix and to other cells
Act as receptors for extracellular molecules, e.g. ganglioside(GM1) acts as a cell surface
receptor for the bacterial toxin that causes diarrhea in cholera.
Cholera toxins bind to and enter only in those cells which express GM1 on their surface including
the intestinal epithelial cells.
2. Membrane proteins- biochemically the membrane
include glycophorin, spectrin, porin etc.
Membrane proteins are fewer compared to lipids but
they perform most of the functions of the plasma
membrane such as:
Serving as specific receptors
Actin as Enzymes
Transport of materials across the plasma membrane
Membrane proteins occupy different positions in the
lipid bilayer plasma membrane, forming either
transmembrane proteins or peripheral proteins.
Transmembrane proteins-proteins which extend
across the entire thickness of the plasma
membrane protruding both on the extracellular
side and in the cytoplasm.
Many membrane proteins are of this type.
The proteins that protrude to the
cytoplasm(cytoplasmic domain) have hydrophilic
region facing the cytoplasm, while proteins
protruding outside the cell(extracellular
domain)have hydrophobic part related to
extracellular environment.
Transmembrane proteins make channels through which water soluble materials such as ions
can enter/leave the cell cytoplasm.
Transmembrane proteins can either be single pass(cross the bilipid plasma membrane only
once) or multipass(crossing the membrane multiple times).
Peripheral membrane proteins-form the remaining membrane proteins, found either on the
extracellular or on the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane.
They do not cross the membrane.
The intracellular membrane proteins are associated with cytoplasmic side of the plasma
membrane and are associated with intracellular signaling, form membrane enzymes or take part
in stabilizing the cell cortex.
3. Membrane carbohydrates-found on the external surface of the plasma membrane attached
mainly to the membrane protein(glycoproteins) or proteoglycans where they form a
carbohydrate rich surface coat known as glycocalyx.
Glycocalyx is well developed on the luminal surface of intestinal epithelium where it provides a
protective mechanical barrier against various substances that we ingest.
A few membrane carbohydrates are associated with lipids as glycolipids.
The unique feature of membrane carbohydrate is that they are all facing the external surface of
the cell and never towards the cytoplasm.
Membrane carbohydrate are important in cell to cell, and cell to matrix interaction and in
maintaining the stability of the cell membrane.
Clinical application
How viruses infect specific organs:
Specific glycoprotein molecules exposed on the surface of the cell membranes of host cells may
be exploited by viruses to infect specific organs.
For example, the HIV is able to penetrate the plasma membranes of specific kinds of white blood
cells(T helper cells and monocytes) as well as some of the cells of the central nervous system.
The hepatitis virus attacks only liver cells(hepatocytes).
These viruses are able to invade these cells, because the cells have binding sites on their
surfaces that the viruses exploit with equally specific glycoproteins in their coats.
The host cell is tricked by the mimicry of the virus coat molecules, and the virus is able to enter
the cell.
Functions of the plasma
membrane
Locomotion-cell locomotion is a cellular process that enables a cell to move from one point to
another.
All cells in the body are capable of performing locomotion, but the degree of movement differs
from cell to cell.
E.g. Newly produced cells of the intestinal mucosa, move gradually from the basal part to
replace the aging cells at the tip of the villi, this movement occurs slowly over 2-3 days.
The cells of the immune system such as macrophages and lymphocytes migrate from one part of
the body to the site of infection by flowing or rolling over a substrate(amoeboid movement).
During this process a cell extends temporary processes(pseudopodia) that stick to a substrate
and then the cytoplasm flows into it thereby moving a cell from one point to another.
Transport:
The plasma membrane has the mechanisms that allow transport of materials to and out of the
cell cytoplasm.
Transport of materials across the plasma membrane is mandatory because cell have to import
food materials for producing energy and synthesis of new molecules such as enzymes,
hormones and other signaling molecules.
The cell also needs a balanced concentration of charged ions that are used in various catalytic
processes and in the maintenance of the electrical gradient across the membrane.
Movement of materials into and out of the cell has to be regulated because if materials are
allowed to enter the cell uncontrollably the cell will swell and die.
Transport across the plasma membrane may be considered in two categories:
Transport of small molecules
Transport of large substances such as solid particles and fluid
Transport of small molecules-small molecules that may enter the cell include water, gases,
amino acids, glucose, protein, nucleic acid precursors, ions such as Na+, K+, Ca2+,Mg2+,
Hco3-,H+,PO4+ and Cl-
Passage of these molecules across the bipolar bilipid plasma membrane depend on the size of
the molecule, if the molecule is charged or lipid soluble.
The lipid bilayer membrane is impermeable to ions(charged molecules) regardless of their size,
therefore transport of these molecules across the membrane is done by membrane transport
protein.
Small non polar molecules such as O2 and CO2, and uncharged polar molecules like ethanol,
water and urea pass easily across the lipid bilayer.
In the plasma membrane there are membrane proteins that perform the role of transporting
molecules across the plasma membrane.
These are carrier proteins and channel proteins and each different protein is specific for
transporting a certain molecule.
Carrier proteins- are mobile molecules that shift molecules across the plasma membrane.
These are multipass transmembrane proteins.
During transportation they bind reversibly to the molecule to be transported to the cytosol.
This process may be active(requiring energy in form of ATP) or passive.
Carrier protein may be uniport or cotransport.
Uniport-these are carrier proteins that carry molecules from one side of the membrane to the
other, e.g. glucose carrier protein that transfer glucose passively into the cell.
Cotransport- carrier proteins also called coupled transporters.
Here the transport proteins which transfer one substance depends on the simultaneous transfer
of another substance.
Co-transport system is used mainly to carry molecules across the membrane against their
electrochemical gradient that is where extracellular concentration is lower than intracellular
concertation.
Example of cotransport carrier protein is Na+K+ pump, this pump is a carrier protein that is
involved in the transport of K+ and Na+ across the plasma membrane.
It is present in almost every cell and its main role is to keep the concentration of Na+ and K+
inside the cell at optimum level
In the absence of such a pump these ions would move down their concentration gradient, which
is detrimental to the cell’s metabolic functions and survival.
The Na+K+pump is a pump that pumps Na+ out of the cell and at the same time it pumps K+
into the cell.
It requires energy, because the concentration of Na+ is approximately 10-20 times higher
outside the cell than inside the cell, and that of K+ is approximately 10-20 times higher inside
the cell than outside.
Therefore carrier proteins actively pump in K+ and pump out Na+ against their electrochemical
gradients.