Cell Structure and Functions

All living organisms are composed of cells. Cells are responsible for all anatomical and physiological
features of all body systems. Different cell types can vary greatly in shape and size but they all have a
common structure and similar components.
A typical cell is enclosed in a plasma membrane and contains a nucleus and a cytoplasm.
The plasma membrane serves as the cell’s boundary, controlling the traffic of substances in and out
of the cell. It is also the site of communication between the cell and its environment.
The membrane consists mainly of 2 layers of phospholipids (75% of all lipids), with their hydrophilic
heads - the phosphate groups - facing the aqueous environments inside and outside the cell; and their
hydrophobic fatty acid tails facing in together.
Other membrane lipids include: cholesterol (20%), which is essential to membrane structure and
fluidity; and glycolipids (carbohydrate +lipid) - 5%, which maintain membrane stability and facilitate
cell to cell interactions.

The lipid membrane is dotted with membrane proteins, of which there are 2 types:
- integral, or transmembrane, proteins, which span across the membrane, some passing through
multiple times. Some transmembrane proteins have a small carbohydrate chain on the outside of the
cell (glycoproteins).
- and peripheral proteins, which attach to the membrane on the inside. A peripheral protein typically
functions together with an integral protein.
Membrane proteins fulfill a variety of functions:
- As receptors (or receptor-associated proteins), they receive messages from outside the cell. For
example, a non-steroid hormone must bind to a membrane receptor and act via several other
membrane proteins to activate a cellular response. Each receptor is specific to a certain molecule.
- As ion channels or transport proteins, they help move charged particles and large uncharged polar
molecules across the cell membrane.
- As adhesion molecules (cadherins, integrins...), they help cells adhere to each other and to the
extracellular matrix.
- As enzymes, they catalyze reactions that are required outside the cell but in the vicinity of the cell
membrane. Examples are digestive enzymes on brush border of small intestine - products of digestion
are immediately absorbed into the cell.
- Transmembrane glycoproteins also serve as surface antigens, determining the cell’s identity.
Examples are antigens on red blood cells that determine blood types.
On top of the cell membrane, some cells have surface extensions that carry out specialized functions.
Examples include microvilli that increase surface area in the small intestine, cilia that move mucus in
the respiratory tract, and flagella that are responsible for the movements of sperm cells.

The nucleus contains genetic material, the DNA, and is where DNA replication, and transcription - the
major step of gene expression - take place. Most cells have 1 nucleus, with the exception of red blood
cells which have none, and some other cells that have multiple nuclei (example: megakaryocytes –
precursor of platelets).
The nuclear envelope surrounding the nucleus consists of 2 membranes: inner and outer, each of
which is a phospholipid bilayer. The envelope is dotted with nuclear pores - protein complexes that
provide controlled passage between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Chromosomes are strands of DNA wrapped around proteins. Under a light microscope, chromosomes
are only visible during cell divisions, when they are highly condensed. Instead, the most prominent
feature of the nucleus is the nucleolus - the area around the clusters of ribosomal RNA genes. This is
where ribosomal RNAs are made and ribosomes are assembled. Ribosomes then move to the
cytoplasm to fulfill their function in protein synthesis.
The cytoplasm includes a gel-like liquid called cytosol, various organelles and cytoskeleton.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, and vesicles constitute the intracellular membrane
system.

The ER is a network of connected flattened sacs called cisternae. Its membrane is continuous with the
outer nuclear membrane. Part of the ER appears “rough” as it is covered with ribosomes. This is where
the synthesis of secretory and transmembrane proteins takes place. These proteins have a signal
sequence within their amino terminus, which, as soon as it emerges from the ribosome, targets the
RNA-ribosome complex to the ER membrane where translation continues. The emerging polypeptide
enters the ER membrane as it is being translated.
Transmembrane proteins, identified by the presence of a hydrophobic stretch, stay in ER membrane,
while secretory proteins are released into the ER lumen.
The “smooth” part of the ER synthesizes lipids and lipid components of cell membranes. As lipids are
produced, they are inserted into the ER membrane.
Membrane proteins, lipids, and secretory proteins are then packaged into vesicles to be transported
to the Golgi, where proteins undergo post-translational modifications.
Vesicles pinch off from ER membranes, travel to Golgi apparatus, fuse with Golgi membranes, and
release their content.
The Golgi is a stack of separated cisternae, each contains a set of enzymes responsible for a certain
step in protein maturation. Similar vesicles transport lipids and proteins from one cisterna to another;
and ultimately to their destinations:
- the plasma membrane - proteins are secreted or inserted into plasma membrane
- lysosomes - hydrolytic enzymes
- or storage vesicles - proteins are stored awaiting signal for release (example: insulin is released upon
induction by glucose)
The destination of a protein is typically determined by a signal sequence, acting as an address tag,
within the protein.
Trafficking occurs in both directions: the forward direction takes vesicles from the ER to the Golgi
apparatus then to protein destination. Vesicles that have released their cargo return via the reverse
direction to be recycled.
The ER is also a major site for metabolism and storage of calcium, whose release is a trigger for many
cellular processes (example: muscle contraction).
Lysosomes are vesicles containing hydrolases that breakdown macromolecules into their building
units, which can then be recycled. The enzymes are activated by the acidic environment within
lysosomes. In white blood cells, lysosomes digest phagocytized bacteria and play a role in immune
response.
Mitochondria are best known as the cell’s powerhouses. This is where energy is extracted from food
compounds and stored in energy-rich molecules. A mitochondrion has 2 membranes. The inner
membrane has multiple folds called cristae. Two of the three main steps of cellular respiration occur
in the mitochondria: citric acid cycle in the matrix, and oxidative phosphorylation on the cristae.
Cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that fulfill a variety of functions. There are 3 types of
filaments: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
- Microfilaments (6nm in diameter) are made of the protein actin. They enable muscle contraction,
provide support for microvilli, produce cell movements, and play a role in cell division.
- Intermediate filaments (8-10nm in diameter) are made of different proteins (keratin, desmin...) in
different cells. Their roles are mostly supportive.
- Microtubules (25nm in diameter) are large tubes of 13 protofilaments, each is a long chain of tubulin
dimers.

A centriole is a short cylinder of 9 triplets of microtubules. A cell typically has 2 centrioles lying
perpendicular to each other forming a structure called centrosome.

Centrosome serves as a microtubule organizing center, from which microtubules grow out into the
cytoplasm. In non-dividing cells, microtubule network holds organelles in place. During cell division,
they form the mitotic spindle that guides chromosome movements. Microtubules are also responsible
for the movements of cilia and flagella.

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