Cell

Dr. Muhammad Shahbaz

Prokaryotic cell
 Cell:
Cell is the fundamental and structural unit of all living organisms.
It is the smallest biological, structural and functional unit of
all plants and animals. Therefore, cells are called the ‘Building
Blocks of Life’ or the ‘Basic units of Life’. Organisms made up of a
single cell are unicellular whereas organisms made up of many cells
are multicellular.
Cell Theory
In 1838, a German botanist, Matthias Jakob Schleiden was the first
to state that cells are the building blocks of all plants. In the
following year, another German botanist, Theodor Schwann stated
that cells are the fundamental units of animals too. Their discoveries
led to the formulation of the ‘Cell Theory’ which states that cells are
the basic units of all living organisms (plants and animals). But the
cell theory failed to explain how new cells arise. In 1855, Rudolf
Virchow, a German physiologist stated that new cells come from
already existing cells.
Three important points of the modified cell
theory are as follows:
 The cell is the basic structural and functional
unit of all living organisms.
 All living organisms (plants and animals) are
made up of cells.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Cell types
Basic properties of cell:
There are the 9 basic properties of cell
 Highly complex and organized
 Possess a genetic program and the means to use it
 Need organic compounds to generate essential macromolecules
 Cells are dependent to water, making up more than 70% of the
cell
 Capable of producing more of themselves
 Acquire and utilize energy
 Carry out a variety of chemical reactions
 Engage in mechanical activities
 Cells die very fast and regenerate very fast to make new cells
 Able to respond to stimuli
 Capable of self-regulation
 Cells evolve
Cell wall
Cell wall is a rigid, semi-permeable protective layer in
some cell types. This outer covering is positioned next to
the cell membrane (plasma membrane) in most plant
cells, fungi, bacteria, algae, and some archaea. Animal cell
however, do not have a cell wall. The cell wall has many
important functions in a cell including protection, structure,
and support.
Cell wall composition varies depending on the organism. In
plants, the cell wall is composed mainly of strong fibers of
the carbohydrate polymer cellulose. Cellulose is the major
component of cotton fiber and wood, and it is used in paper
production. Bacterial cell walls are composed of a sugar
and amino acid polymer called peptidoglycan. The main
components of fungal cell walls are chitin, glucans, and
proteins.
Cell Wall Structure
The plant cell wall is multi-layered and consists of up to three sections.
From the outermost layer of the cell wall, these layers are identified as the
middle lamella, primary cell wall, and secondary cell wall.
 Middle lamella: This outer cell wall layer contains polysaccharides
called pectins. Pectins aid in cell adhesion by helping the cell walls of
adjacent cells to bind to one another.
 Primary cell wall: This layer is formed between the middle lamella
and plasma membrane in growing plant cells. It is primarily composed
of cellulose microfibrils contained within a gel-like matrix of
hemicellulose fibers and pectin polysaccharides. The primary cell wall
provides the strength and flexibility needed to allow for cell growth.
 Secondary cell wall: This layer is formed between the primary cell
wall and plasma membrane in some plant cells. Once the primary cell
wall has stopped dividing and growing, it may thicken to form a
secondary cell wall. This rigid layer strengthens and supports the cell.
In addition to cellulose and hemicellulose, some secondary cell walls
contain lignin. Lignin strengthens the cell wall and aids in water
conductivity in plant vascular tissue cells.
 Physiological roles of cell wall:
 Support: The cell wall provides mechanical strength and support. It
also controls the direction of cell growth.
 Withstand turgor pressure: Turgor pressure is the force exerted
against the cell wall as the contents of the cell push the plasma
membrane against the cell wall. This pressure helps a plant to remain
rigid and erect but can also cause a cell to rupture.
 Regulate growth: The cell wall sends signals for the cell to enter
the cell cycle in order to divide and grow.
 Regulate diffusion: The cell wall is porous allowing some substances,
including proteins, to pass into the cell while keeping other substances
out.
 Communication: Cells communicate with one another
via plasmodesmata (pores or channels between plant cell
walls that allow molecules and communication signals to
pass between individual plant cells).
 Protection: The cell wall provides a barrier to protect
against plant viruses and other pathogens. It also helps to
prevent water loss.
 Storage: The cell wall stores carbohydrates for use in
plant growth, especially in seeds.
Cell Membrane:
The cell membrane also known as the plasma
membrane is a double layer of lipids and proteins that
surrounds a cell and separates the cytoplasm (the contents of
the cell) from its surrounding environment. It is selectively
permeable, which means that it only lets certain molecules
enter and exit. It can also control the amount of some
substances that go into or out of the cell. All cells have a cell
membrane.
The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix
of proteins and lipids. Depending on the membrane’s location
and role in the body, lipids can make up anywhere from 20 to
80 percent of the membrane, with the remainder being
proteins. While lipids help to give membranes their flexibility,
proteins monitor and maintain the cell's chemical climate and
assist in the transfer of molecules across the membrane.
Fluid-Mosaic Model (Chemical
composition) :

S. J. Singer and G. L. Nicolson proposed the

Fluid Mosaic Model of the cell membrane in
1972. This model describes the structure of
the cell membrane as a fluid structure with
various protein and carbohydrate components
diffusing freely across the membrane.
 Phospholipids are a major component of
cell membranes. Phospholipids form a
lipid bilayer in which
their hydrophilic (attracted to water) head
areas spontaneously arrange to face the
aqueous cytosol and the extracellular
fluid, while their hydrophobic (repelled
by water) tail areas face away from the
cytosol and extracellular fluid. The lipid
bilayer is semi-permeable, allowing only
certain molecules to diffuse across the
membrane.
 Cholesterol is another lipid component of animal cell
membranes. Cholesterol molecules are selectively dispersed
between membrane phospholipids. This helps to keep cell
membranes from becoming stiff by
preventing phospholipids from being too closely packed together.
Cholesterol is not found in the membranes of plant cells.
 Glycolipids are located on cell membrane surfaces and have
a carbohydrate sugar chain attached to them. They help the cell
to recognize other cells of the body.
 Proteins The cell membrane contains two types of associated
proteins. Peripheral membrane proteins (extrinsic
proteins) are exterior to and connected to the membrane by
interactions with other proteins. Integral membrane proteins
(intrinsic proteins) are inserted into the membrane and most
pass through the membrane. Portions of these transmembrane
proteins are exposed on both sides of the membrane. Cell
membrane proteins have a number of different functions.
Structural proteins help to give the cell support and shape.
Cell membrane receptor proteins help cells communicate
with their external environment
Transport proteins such as globular proteins, transport
molecules across cell membranes through facilitated
diffusion.
Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them.
They are embedded in the cell membrane and help in cell to
cell communications and molecule transport across the
membrane.
Fluid mosaic model
Functions of the Plasma Membrane:

 Transport: Transport is one of the main functions

of the plasma membrane. While some substances
are allowed into the cell, some are prevented from
gaining entrance. Therefore, the plasma membrane
is selectively permeable and thus does not allow all
substances in and out of the cell.
There are two types main types of transport that occur
through the plasma membrane including:
Passive transport This is the type of transportation
that does not require the use of energy
Active transport Through the use of energy given
that substances have to be transported against a
concentration gradient
 Ingestion Because of the nature of the plasma
membrane, different types of cells can ingest a
variety of substances into the cell. This is achieved
through such processes as
endocytosis, phagocytosis, and pinocytosis.
 Cell division: Plasma membrane is a dynamic
structure that is always in motion. This
characteristic makes it easy for a cell to divide
when need be to form two daughter cells from the
original cell. The plasma membrane pinches at the
central part and separates to form two new cells.
 Communication: Through structures on their
surface (proteins and carbohydrates) cells can
communicate with each other and interact through
signaling.
Nucleus:
Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown (1831) in cells of
orchids. It is the most important and prominent membrane-
bound structure that contains a cell's hereditary information
and controls its growth and reproduction. It is present in all
eukaryotic cells except the mature sieve tube cells of higher
plants. Owing to the presence of large central vacuole, it is
present to a side near the cell membrane.
Nucleus chemical composition:

 9-12 percent DNA

 15 percent histone
 65 percent enzymes, neutral proteins and acid proteins
 5 percent RNA
 3 percent lipids
STRUCTURE:

Some of the main components

of a nucleus include:
i. Nuclear envelope
ii. Chromosomes
iii. Nucleoplasm
iv. Nucleolus
Nuclear Envelope and Nuclear Pores:

Cell nucleus is bound by a double membrane called

the nuclear envelope. This membrane separates the
contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm, the gel-like
substance containing all other organelles. The nuclear
envelope consists of phospholipids that form a lipid bilayer
much like that of the cell membrane. This lipid bilayer
has nuclear pores that allow substances to enter and exit
the nucleus, or transfer from the cytoplasm to the
nucleoplasm.
The nuclear envelope helps to maintain the shape of the
nucleus. It is connected to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
in such a way that the internal chamber of the nuclear
envelope is continuous with the lumen or inside of the ER.
This also allows the transfer of materials as well.
Chromosomes:
The nucleus houses chromosomes containing DNA. DNA holds
heredity information and instructions for cell growth, development
and reproduction. When a cell is "resting" or not dividing its
chromosomes are organized into long entangled structures
called chromatin.
Chromatin is a superstructure formed by highly organized
compaction of the cell’s DNA and associated proteins. Histone
proteins are the composite piece of the basic unit of chromatin
organization called the nucleosome. Histones are basic proteins,
possessing a positive charge which enables them to bind the
negatively charged phosphate backbone of DNA.
Within the histone family, four histone members form an octamer
which defines the nucleosomal protein component. Two H3 and two
H4 proteins first tetramerize and combine with two H2A/H2B
dimers. Approximately 150bp length of DNA wrap around each of
the disk-shaped protein structure for approximately 2 turns.
The resultant DNA-histone complex forms the nucleosome
core particle (NCP). Between each NCP is a region termed
the linker region; this is comprised of between 10-90 bp of
DNA together with the Histone subtype H1. Together, the
linker DNA and NCP comprise the nucleosome; it repeats
approximately every 200 bp. This produces a beads-on-a-
string structure. This most basic unit of DNA can be further
organized into a higher-order structure called chromatin.
This is a 30nm fibre that forms from coiling of the
nucleosomes into a solenoid.
Still, the chromatin can coil even further to form the
resultant chromosome. In the metaphase stage of the cell
cycle, hyper condensation of the chromosome occurs to
allow correct segregation of the chromosomes in both
meiosis and mitosis.
 Nucleoplasm:
Nucleoplasm is the gelatinous substance within the nuclear envelope.
Also called karyoplasm. This semi-aqueous material is similar to
cytoplasm in that it is composed mainly of water with dissolved salts,
enzymes and organic molecules suspended within. The nucleolus and
chromosomes are surrounded by nucleoplasm which cushions and
protects nuclear contents.
Like the nuclear envelope the nucleoplasm supports the nucleus to hold
its shape. It also provides a medium by which materials, such as
enzymes and nucleotides (DNA and RNA subunits) can be transported
throughout the nucleus to its various parts.
Nucleolus:
Contained within the nucleus is a dense, membrane-less structure
composed of RNA and proteins called the nucleolus. The nucleolus
contains nucleolar organizers, the parts of chromosomes carrying the
genes for ribosome synthesis. The nucleolus helps to synthesize
ribosomes by transcribing and assembling ribosomal RNA subunits.
These subunits joined to form ribosomes during protein synthesis.
Functions:
Some of the main functions of the nucleus
include:
 Protein synthesis, cell division
and differentiation
 Control the synthesis of enzymes involved in
cellular metabolism
 Controlling hereditary traits of the organism
 Store DNA strands, proteins, and RNA
 Site of RNA transcription. e.g. mRNA required
for protein synthesis
Endoplasmic Reticulum
“A
continuous membrane syste
m that forms a series of
flattened sacs within
the cytoplasm of eukaryotic
cells and serves multiple
functions being important
particularly in the synthesis,
folding, modification, and
transport of proteins”
All eukaryotic cells contain
an endoplasmic reticulum
(ER). In animal cells, the ER
usually constitutes more than
half of the membranous
content of the cell.
 Structure of the Endoplasmic Reticulum:
The endoplasmic reticulum membrane system can be
morphologically divided into two structures cisternae and sheets.
Cisternae are tubular in structure and form a three-dimensional
polygonal network. They are about 50 nm in diameter in mammals
and 30 nm in diameter in yeast. ER sheets on the other hand are
membrane-enclosed, two-dimensional flattened sacs that extend
across the cytoplasm. They are frequently associated with ribosomes
and special proteins called translocons that are necessary for protein
translation within the RER.
Lumen is the area of the endoplasmic reticulum that is enclosed by
the ER membrane. As such it is an extensive area located within the
membranes of the ER.
Differences in certain physical and functional characteristics
distinguish the two types of ER known as rough ER and smooth ER.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum:
RER is named for its rough appearance which is due to
the ribosomes attached to its outer (cytoplasmic) surface. Rough ER
lies immediately adjacent to the cell nucleus and its membrane is
continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope. The
ribosomes on rough ER specialize in the synthesis of proteins that
possess a signal sequence that directs them specifically to the ER for
processing.
The proximity of the rough ER to the cell nucleus gives the ER unique
control over protein processing. The rough ER is able to rapidly send
signals to the nucleus when problems in protein synthesis and folding
occur and thereby influences the overall rate of protein translation.
When misfolded or unfolded proteins accumulate in the ER lumen, a
signaling mechanism known as the unfolded protein response (UPR) is
activated. The response is adaptive such that UPR activation triggers
reductions in protein synthesis and enhancements in ER protein-folding
capacity and ER-associated protein degradation. If the adaptive
response fails cells are directed to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell
death)..
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum by contrast, is not
associated with ribosomes and its functions differ. The
smooth ER is involved in the synthesis of lipids
including cholesterol and phospholipids which are
used in the production of new cellular membrane. In
certain cell types, smooth ER plays an important role
in the synthesis of steroid hormones from cholesterol.
In cells of the liver it contributes to the detoxification
of drugs and harmful chemicals. The sarcoplasmic
reticulum is a specialized type of smooth ER that
regulates the calcium ion concentration in the
cytoplasm of striated muscle cells.
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 It is mainly responsible for the transportation of
proteins and other carbohydrates to another organelle,
which includes lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, plasma
membrane, etc.
 They provide the increased surface area for cellular
reactions.
 They help in the formation of nuclear membrane
during cell division.
 They play a vital role in the formation of the skeletal
framework.
 They play a vital role in the synthesis of proteins,
lipids, glycogen and other steroids like cholesterol,
progesterone, testosterone, etc.
Plastids:
Plastids are large cytoplasmic organelles. Plastids are
major organelles found in the cells of plants and
algae. They are the site of manufacture and storage of
important chemical compounds used by the cell.
Plastids often contain pigments used in
photosynthesis and the types of pigments present can
change or determine the cell's color. The term plastid
was derived from the Greek word Plastikas meaning
formed or moulded. This term was coined by
Schimper in 1885.
In plants, plastids may differentiate into several
forms, depending upon which function they need to
play in the cell.
Chloroplasts:
Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and other
eukaryotic organisms that conduct photosynthesis. The word
chloroplast is derived from the Greek words chloros, which
means green, and plast, which means form or entity. Chloroplasts
are members of a class of organelles known as plastids.
Shape: Chloroplast varies in shape. They are spheroid or ovoid or
discoid in higher plants. They are cup-shaped in chlamydomonas
and spirally coiled in spirogyra.
Size: The size of the plastids varies from species to species. But
the size remains constant for a given cell type. In higher plants, it
is 4-5microns in length and 1-3microns in thickness. Generally
chroloplasts of plants growing in shady places are larger in size.
Number: The number of chloroplasts varies from plant to plant
but it remains constant for a given plant. In higher plants there
are 20 to 40 chloroplasts per cell or upto 1000 chloroplasts.
Structure:
Plant chloroplasts are large organelles (5 to 10 μm long) bounded
by a double membrane called the chloroplast envelope. In addition
to the inner and outer membranes of the envelope, chloroplasts
have a third internal membrane system called the thylakoid
membrane. The thylakoid membrane forms a network of flattened
discs called thylakoids which are frequently arranged in stacks
called grana. Grana are interconnected by branching membraneous
tubules called frets (stromal lamellae). Their three membranes
divide chloroplasts into three distinct internal compartments:
1) The intermembrane space between the two membranes of the
chloroplast envelope
2) The stroma, which lies inside the envelope but outside the
thylakoid membrane
3) Thylakoid lumen.
A thylakoid has a flattened disk shape. Inside it is an empty area
called the thylakoid space or lumen.
Chloroplast contains proteins,
lipids, carbohydrates, DNA,
RNA, carotenoids, chlorophyll
and minerals. Composition of
these chemical were indicated in
the following table:

S.# Chemical Percentage

1. Proteins 35-55%
2. Lipids 20-30%
3. Carbohydrate Variable
s
4. Chlorophyll 9%
5. Carotenoids 4.5%
6. RNA 3-4%
7. DNA 0.5%
8. Minerals 0.2%
Chromoplasts:
Chromoplasts is the name given to an area for all the
pigments to be kept and synthesized in the plant. These
can be usually found in flowering plants, aging leaves
and fruits. Chloroplasts convert into chromoplasts.
Chromoplasts are carotenoid pigments that allow
different colors that you see in leaves and fruits. The
main reason for its structure and the color for attracting
pollinators.
Gerontoplasts:
These are basically chloroplasts that go with the aging
process. Geronoplasts refers to the chloroplasts of the
leaves that helps the beginning to convert into different
other organelles when the leaf is no longer using
photosynthesis usually in an autumn month.
Leucoplasts:
They are non-pigmented plastids (Leuco=white;
plast=living). These are the non-pigmented organelles which
are colourless. Leucoplasts are usually found in most of the
non-photosynthetic parts of the plant like roots. They act as a
storage sheds for starches, lipids, and proteins depending on
the needs of the plants. They are mostly used for converting
amino acids and fatty acids.
Leucoplasts are of three types:
Amlyloplast: It stores starch and found in tubers, cotyledons
and endosperm
Elaioplast: It stores oil and found in the epidermal cells
Proteinoplast: It stores protein and found in seeds and nuts
Functions of Plastids:
 Plastids are the site of manufacture and storage of important
chemical compounds used by the cells
of autotrophic eukaryotes.
 The thylakoid membrane contains all the enzymatic
components required for photosynthesis. Thus the thylakoid
membrane is a specialized structure that plays a key role in
the capture of light and electron transport.
 Chloroplasts are the centers of synthesis and metabolism of
carbohydrates.
 They are not only of crucial importance in photosynthesis
but also in the storage of primary foodstuffs, particularly
starch.
 Like mitochondria, plastids have their
own DNA and ribosomes. Hence, they may be used in
phylogenetic studies.
Mitochondria:
Mitochondrion is membrane-bound organelle found in
the cytoplasm of almost all eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria
are typically round to oval in shape and range in size from
0.5 to 10 μm. Mitochondria are often referred to as the
powerhouses of the cell. The number of mitochondria
present in a cell depends upon the metabolic requirements
of that cell and may range from a single large
mitochondrion to thousands of the organelles.
Different cell types have different numbers of
mitochondria. Liver cells can have more than 2,000. Cells
with a high demand for energy tend to have greater
numbers of mitochondria. Around 40 percent of the
cytoplasm in heart muscle cells is taken up by
mitochondria.
The mitochondrion is different from most other
organelles because it has its own circular DNA (similar
to the DNA of prokaryotes) and reproduces
independently of the cell in which it is found; an
apparent case of endosymbiosis. Scientists hypothesize
that millions of years ago small, free-living prokaryotes
were engulfed but not consumed by larger prokaryotes
perhaps because they were able to resist the digestive
enzymes of the host organism. The two organisms
developed a symbiotic relationship over time, the larger
organism providing the smaller with ample nutrients
and the smaller organism providing ATP molecules to
the larger one. Eventually, the larger organism
developed into the eukaryotic cell and the smaller
organism into the mitochondrion.
Structure:
Outer membrane:
Small molecules can pass freely through the outer membrane.
This outer portion includes proteins called porins which form
channels that allow proteins to cross. The outer membrane also
hosts several enzymes.
Inner membrane:
The inner membrane is far less permeable, allowing only very
small molecules to cross into the gel-like matrix that makes up
the organelle’s central mass. Molecules can only cross the inner
membrane in special membrane transporters. The matrix
contains the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of the mitochondrial
genome and the enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA)
cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle, or Krebs cycle)
which metabolizes nutrients into by-products the mitochondrion
can use for energy production with a wide variety of functions.
Cristae:
These are the folds of the inner membrane. They increase
the surface area of the membrane therefore increasing the
space available for chemical reactions.
Matrix:
This is the space within the inner membrane. Containing
hundreds of enzymes, it is important in the production of
ATP. Mitochondrial DNA is housed here.
Mitochondrial DNA:
Although most of our DNA is kept in the nucleus of each
cell, mitochondria have their own set of DNA. Interestingly,
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is more similar to bacterial
DNA. The mtDNA holds the instructions for a number of
proteins and other cellular support equipment across 37
genes.
Functions:
Energy conversion:
Mitochondria act as biological energy converter. The most prominent
roles of mitochondria are to produce the energy currency of the
cell, ATP (i.e., phosphorylation of ADP) through respiration and to
regulate cellular metabolism. The central set of reactions involved in
ATP production are collectively known as the citric acid cycle, or
the Krebs cycle
Oxidation of fatty acids i.e. B-oxidation also occurs in mitochondria.
Cell death
Cell death, also called apoptosis, is an essential part of life. As cells
become old or broken, they are cleared away and destroyed.
Mitochondria help decide which cells are destroyed. Mitochondria
release cytochrome C, which activates caspase, one of the chief
enzymes involved in destroying cells during apoptosis. Because certain
diseases such as cancer, involve a breakdown in normal apoptosis
mitochondria are thought to play a role in the disease.
Storing calcium:
Calcium is vital for a number of cellular processes. For instance,
releasing calcium back into a cell can initiate the release of a
neurotransmitter from a nerve cell or hormones from endocrine
cells. Calcium is also necessary for muscle function, fertilization,
and blood clotting, among other things. Because calcium is so
critical, the cell regulates it tightly. Mitochondria play a part in this
by quickly absorbing calcium ions and holding them until they are
needed.
Heat production:
Under certain conditions, protons can re-enter the mitochondrial
matrix without contributing to ATP synthesis. This process is known
as proton leak or mitochondrial uncoupling and is due to
the facilitated diffusion of protons into the matrix. The process
results in the unharnessed potential energy of the proton
electrochemical gradient being released as heat. The process is
mediated by a proton channel called thermogenin, or UCP1. During
a process called proton leak, mitochondria can generate heat. This is
known as non-shivering thermogenesis.
Ribosome:
The ribosome is a complex molecule made of ribosomal RNA
molecules and proteins that form a factory for protein synthesis in
cells. In 1955, George E. Palade discovered ribosomes and
described them as small particles in the cytoplasm that preferentially
associated with the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Along with
other scientists, Palade discovered that ribosomes performed protein
synthesis in cells, and he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1974 for
his work.
Ribosomes are remarkably abundant in cells. A single actively
replicating eukaryotic cell may contain as many as 10 million
ribosomes. In the bacterium Escherichia coli, ribosomes may
number as many as 15,000, constituting as much as one-quarter of
the cell’s total mass. The size of the ribosomes within cells varies
depending on the cell type and on factors such as whether the cell is
resting or replicating.
Location:
Ribosomes are organelles located inside the animal,
human cell, and plant cells. They are situated in the
cytosol, some bound and free-floating to the
membrane of the coarse endoplasmic reticulum.
They are utilized in decoding DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) to proteins and no rRNA is forever bound to the
RER, they release or bind as directed by the kind of
protein they proceed to combine. In an animal or
human cell, there could be up to 10 million ribosomes
and numerous ribosomes can be connected to the
equivalent mRNA strand, this structure is known as
a POLYSOME.
Structure:
Ribosomes are made up of ribosomal proteins and ribosomal
RNA (rRNA). In prokaryotes, ribosomes are roughly 40
percent protein and 60 percent rRNA. In eukaryotes,
ribosomes are about half protein and half rRNA. Ribosomes
are usually made up of three or four rRNA molecules and
anywhere from about 40 to 80 different ribosomal proteins.
Each ribosome is composed of two subunits, a larger one and a
smaller one, each of which has a characteristic shape. The
subunits typically are referred to in terms of
their sedimentation rate, which is measured in Svedberg units
(S), in a centrifugal field. The small and large subunits of
eukaryotes are designated 40S and 60S, respectively, while
prokaryotes contain a small 30S subunit and a large 50S
subunit.
Functions:
 They assemble amino acids to form specific
proteins, proteins are essential to carry out cellular
activities.
 The process of production of proteins, the
deoxyribonucleic acid produces mRNA by the
process of DNA transcription.
 The genetic message from the mRNA is translated
into proteins during DNA translation.
 The sequences of protein assembly during protein
synthesis are specified in the mRNA.
 In the cytoplasm, the two subunits of ribosomes are
bound around the polymers of mRNA; proteins are
then synthesized with the help of transfer RNA.
Golgi complex (Dictyosomes):
Golgi apparatus was discovered in 1898 by Italian
physician Camillo Golgi during an investigation of
the nervous system. Dictyosome consists of
flattened membranous sacs. They look like a stack
of pita bread. A cell may have several
interconnected stacks. Each cisterna in a stack
consists of a membrane. This membrane separates
its internal space from the cytosol. Vesicles
concentrated near the Golgi apparatus. They are
used in the transfer of material between the Golgi
and other structures. The number of dictoysomes
may be few hundreds in plant cells. But lower
organisms have only 4 or less dictoysomes.
Structure:
Golgi complex is a set of smooth membranes
that are attacked into flattened fluid filled sacs. These
fluid-filled sacs are called cisternae. Dictyosome
generally has two poles. The membranes of cisternae
differ in thickness and molecular composition at
opposite ends of a stack. The two poles of a Golgi
stack are:
(a) The cis-face (or forming face): The cis face is
located near ER.
(b) The trans face (or maturing face): This end
acts as the receiving and shipping departments of the
Golgi apparatus.
 Formation of secretions in Dictoysomes:
Following steps take place during formation of secretions:
 Transport vesicles move material from the ER to the Golgi. A
vesicle buds from the ER. They forms transport vesicles. This
transport vesicle fuses with cis face of Golgi apparatus and transfer
its contents to Golgi membrane.
 The trans face gives rise to secretary vesicles. These secretary
vesicles pinch off and travel to other sites.
 Products of the ER are modified during transport from the cis pole
to the trans pole of the golgi proteins. Various Golgi enzymes
modify oligosaccharide portions of glycoproteins. The
oligosaccharides of glycoproteins are identical in the ER. The Golgi
removes some sugar monomers and substitutes others. So they
produce different types of oligo saccharides. The secretary vesicle
budded off from the tans-face of golgi complex.
 The secretary vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane. This product
is finally exported outside.
Functions:
Golgi complex performs following functions:
 Cell secretions: Golgi complex are concerned with cell
secretions. For example in mammals, the pancreas secretes
granules. These granules contain enzymes that help in
digestion.
 Transportation: Golgi apparatus transport the proteins or
enzymes outside the cell.
 Formation of Glycoproteins and glycolipids: It is the
most important function of the Golgi apparatus. They add
carbohydrate to protein and lipids to
form glycoprotein and glycolipids.
 Formation of cell wall: The dictoysomes forms a structure
called phragmoplast between the dividing plant cells.
Phragmoplast form new cell wall between dividing cell.
Vacuole:
Vacuole is a membrane bound, multifunctional
organelle found in the cells of animals, plants
(including algae and fungi) and some protists and
bacteria. Vacuoles are fluid-filled enclosed structures
that are separated from the cytoplasm by a single
membrane. A plant cell vacuole is surrounded by a
single membrane called the tonoplast. Vacuoles are
formed when vesicles released by the endoplasmic
reticulum and Golgi complex merge together. Newly
developing plant cells typically contain number of
smaller vacuoles. As the cell matures, a large central
vacuole forms from the fusion of smaller vacuoles.
The central vacuole can occupy up to 90% of the
cell's volume.
Vacuolar Contents:
 Inorganic substances found in the vacuole show variation from cell
type to cell type. For example, more than 90% of the total cellular
Mg2+ ions are found within the vacuole. On the contrary, the total
concentration of calcium ions and copper ions is just 6% and 2%
respectively. But the most common ions like K+ ions are equally
distributed between cytoplasm and vacuoles.
 Plant cell vacuoles also contain a good number of organic
carboxylic acids, amino acids, amides, mucilage, anthocyanins,
flavones, gums, alkaloids, anthocyanin. In certain plants like
citrus, the vacuoles are filled with highly acidic citrate compounds
whose pH is about 2.5 and curiously enough such acidic pH is
prevented from inactivating cytosolic components by tonoplast
membranes and provides a distinct compartmentalization.
 Vacuole also contains a wide variety of hydrolysing enzymes. The
common enzymes found are carboxypeptidase, RNase, DNase,
phosphotases, b-glycosidase, alfa and beta-amylase etc.
Functions:
Storage: Vacuoles store important minerals, water, nutrients,
ions, waste products, small molecules, enzymes, and plant
pigments.​Plant cell vacuoles perform a number of functions in
a cell including:
Turgor pressure control: Turgor pressure is the force exerted
against the cell wall as the contents of the cell push
the plasma membrane against the cell wall. The water-filled
central vacuole exerts pressure on the cell wall to help plant
structures remain rigid and erect.
Growth: The central vacuole aids in cell elongation by
absorbing water and exerting turgor pressure on the cell wall.
This growth is aided by the release of certain proteins that
reduce cell wall rigidity.
Molecule degradation: The internal acidic environment of
a vacuole aids in the degradation of larger molecules sent
to the vacuole for destruction. The tonoplast helps to create
this acidic environment by transporting hydrogen ions from
the cytoplasm into the vacuole. The low pH environment
activates enzymes which degrade biological polymers.
Detoxification: Vacuoles remove potentially toxic
substances from the cytosol, such as excess heavy metals
and herbicides.
Protection: Some vacuoles store and release chemicals that
are poisonous or taste bad to deter predators from
consuming the plant.
Seed germination: Vacuoles are a source of nutrients for
seeds during germination. They store the
necessary carbohydrates, proteins and fats needed for
growth.