Mr.

Rohit Mishra
Assistant Professor

Marketing Research and Report

Preparation
BBALL.B-5 Semester
BBALLBC501
 UNIT-1
Introduction to Marketing Research
 MARKETING RESEARCH
• Marketing research is a process that link the organization with
its market environment.
• It involves the specification, gathering, analysis, and
interpretation of information to help management understand
that particular market environment, identify its problems and
opportunities and develop marketing course of action.
 “Harley Davidson exploring new market”
• the major US motorcycle maker.
• Problem faced-stagnant domestic sales
• Management realize to attract the peoples
• In 1999, started the rental program to hook the customers
• People learned to ride through Harleys Riders Edge Program
• Every year increases their participating outlet all across the
world.
ROLE OF MARKETING RESEARCH IN MANAGERIAL
DECISION MAKING
• Situation analysis-understand environment, identify
threats and opportunities
• Strategy development- defines business
scope,competitive advantages and set performance
objectives
• Marketing development program- 4Ps
• Implementations
 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MARKETIG RESEARCH
DECISIONS
Relevance – not to confirm the previous decisions
Type and nature of information
Timing – according to specific schedule
Availability of resources
Cost benefit analysis
 ETHICS IN MARKETING RESEARCH
• Ethics means the morale values and principles govern
the conduct of individual or group.
• Researchers have responsibility to their profession,
clients and respondent.
 DOES MARKETING RESEARCH GUARANTEE
SUCCESS
• Coca cola conducted numerous studies before
introducing New Coke..but failed due loyalty of their
customer with original coke.
• Realizing that the market needed low calories beer,
Gablinger introduce first low calories beer….but failed
due to poor taste.
• Anheuser-Bush and Miller Brewing Achieved great
suceess..due to better taste and low calories.
 RESEARCH APPROACHES
There are two approaches:-
• Quantitative and Qualitative approach
• QUANTITATIVE APPROACH involves the collection of
quantitative data. This approach further includes
experimental, inferential, and simulation approaches
to research.
 QUALITATIVE APPROACH
• qualitative approach uses the method of subjective
assessment of opinions, behaviour and attitudes. The
results generated by this type of research are either in
non-quantitative form or in the form which cannot be
put to rigorous quantitative analysis. Usually, this
approach uses techniques like indepth interviews,
focus group interviews, and projective techniques.
 Types Of Research
• Descriptive Versus Analytical
Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding
enquiries of different types. The main objective of
descriptive research is describing the state of affairs as it
prevails at the time of study
The most distinguishing feature of this method is that
the researcher has no control over the variables here
such as the consumers’ preferences, frequency of
purchases, shopping, etc.
 Analytical research
• Analytical research, the researcher has to use the
already available facts or information, and analyze
them to make a critical evaluation of the subject.
 Applied Versus Fundamental
Applied
• An attempt to find a solution to an immediate problem
encountered by a firm, an industry, a business
organisation, or the society is known as applied
research
• Researchers engaged in such researches aim at
drawing certain conclusions
 Fundamental
• “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed
‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research”
• Researches relating to pure mathematics or concerning
some natural phenomenon
• the objective of basic research is to find information
with a broad base of application and add to the
already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.
 Quantitative Versus Qualitative
• Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be
quantified or can be expressed in terms of quantity
• Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative
phenomena, or more specifically, the aspects related
to or involving quality or kind.
Importance Of Knowing How To Conduct Research

• enables them to do research properly. It helps them to

develop disciplined thinking
• utilize the research findings with confidence
• evaluate research and make rational decisions
• Meet the purpose or objective
 Qualities Of A Researcher
• researcher must be of the temperament that vibrates
in unison with the theme which he is searching
• A researcher must possess an alert mind
• requires the moral quality of courage
 Significance Of Research
• habits of thinking and organisation
• facilitates the decision-making of policy-makers
• collecting information on the social and economic
structure of an economy
• solving various operational and planning problems
associated with business and industry
THE BASIC RESEARCH PROCESS
 STAGE 1: PROBLEM FORMULATION
• problem formulation is the heart of the research
process the researcher’s point of view
• problem formulation means translating the
management problem into a research problem
• rephrase it into meaningful terms from an analytical
point of view
• help solve the management Problem
Examples of Management Problems and Related Research Problems

• Decide whether to keep office open Saturday-Evaluate

use of services on Saturday and determine on whether
customers will shift usage to weekdays
• Increase the sales of a product-Measure a product’s
current image
• 1. The problem statement expresses a relationship
between two or more variables.
• 2. The problem is stated clearly and unambiguously in
question form.
• 3. The problem statement implies possibilities of
empirical testing.
 STAGE 2: METHOD OF INQUIRY
• Market researchers look to the scientific method as
the source of their investigative methods.
• scientific method is for the most part logical and
objective, and frequently makes extensive use of
mathematical reasoning and complicated experiments.
 STAGE 3: RESEARCH METHOD
• Whether a particular method of inquiry is appropriate
for a research problem depends in large part on the
nature of the problem itself and the extent or level of
existing knowledge.
• Two broad methodologies can be used to answer any
research question–experimental research and non-
experimental research
 STAGE 4: RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is defined as the specific methods and
procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is
a plan or organizational framework for doing the study
and collecting the data.
 STAGE 5: DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
• A number of techniques available for collecting data
can be used. Some techniques are unique to a method
of inquiry.
 STAGE 6: SAMPLE DESIGN
• Rarely will a marketing research project involve
examining the entire population that is relevant to the
problem.
• In designing the sample, the researcher must specify
three things:
1. Where the sample is to be selected
2. The process of selection
3. The size of the sample
 STAGE 7: DATA COLLECTION
Data collection, whether by communication or
observation, requires the use of data collection
personnel which then raises questions regarding
managing these people.
 STAGE 8: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Data that are obtained and presented in the same form

as originally collected are seldom useful to anyone.
Data must be analyzed. The data must be edited,
coded, and tabulated before performing formal
analyses such as statistical tests
 STAGE 9: THE RESEARCH REPORT
The culmination(end) of the research process is the
research report. It includes a clear, accurate, and
honest description of everything that has been done
and the results, conclusions, and— whenever possible
—recommendations for courses of action.
 RESEARCH DESIGN
• Research design is the detailed blueprint used to guide
a research study towards its objectives.
• The process of designing research involves many
interrelated decisions…..
• The most important decision is the choice of research
approach, because it determines how the information
will be obtained.
 Types of research
• The choice of research approach depends on the
nature of the research that one wants to do.
• All research approaches can be classified into three
categories of research-
1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive
3. Causal
 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
• It is used when one is seeking insights into the general
nature of problem, the possible decision alternatives
and relevant variables that need to be considered.
• This research is also useful for establishing priorities
among research questions and for learning about the
practical problems of carrying out the research.
• Example- Interviews with persons knowledgeable
about the subject area
 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
• Its purpose is to provide an accurate snapshot of some
aspect of the market environment.
• In this research the hypothesis often will exist, but they
may be tentative and speculative.
• For example- the research question concerns where
people buy a particular product.
 CASUAL RESEARCH
• When it is necessary to show that one variable causes
or determines the values of other variables, a casual
research approach must be used.
• For example- Does color matter?
 SOURCES OF MARKETING INFORMATION
There are five major sources for obtaining marketing information-
• Secondary sources(collected by persons or agencies.)
• Respondents (Asking questions and observing behaviour )
• Natural experiments (A natural experiment is one in which the
investigator intervenes only to the extent required for
measurement. there is no manipulation of an assumed causal
variable)
• Controlled experiments(there is manipulation of an assumed
causal variable)
• Simulation(air hostess training)
 Unit-2
Data Collection Methods
SECONDARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Secondary data (or secondary information) is
information that has been collected by persons or
agencies for purposes other than the solution of the
marketing research problem at hand. These data may
have been collected from sources within the
researcher’s firm or from sources outside the firm
 REASONS FOR OBTAINING SECONDARY
INFORMATION
• Secondary Information May Solve the Problem
• Secondary Information Search Costs Substantially Less
• Secondary Information Has Important Supplementary
Uses
• Time consuming
 TYPES OF SECONDARY INFORMATION
• Internal Secondary Information -All companies collect
information in the everyday course of conducting business.
Orders are received and filled, costs are recorded, warranty
cards are returned, salespeople’s reports are submitted,
engineering reports are made
• External Secondary Information - As an example, a
consumer goods company is considering whether it should
establish a direct selling operation. Direct selling is defined as
personal contact between a salesperson and a consumer
away from a fixed business location such as a retail store.
 SOURCES OF EXTERNAL SECONDARY DATA

The major original sources of external secondary

information are:
1. Government (state central and local)
2. Trade associations and trade press
3. Periodicals and professional journals
4. Institutions (e.g., universities)
5. Commercial services (Banks and Financial Institutions)
 CONDUCTING INTERVIEWS
THE INTERVIEW The research interview is a means of
obtaining information from respondents. We can
define an interview as a form of dyadic (person-to-
person) communication that involves the asking and
answering of questions.
 Structure of the Interview
• Interviews in marketing research and the behavioural
sciences typically involve information gathering and
are usually classified by two major characteristics.
Objective Interviews
Subjective Interviews
 PERSONAL INTERVIEWS
• As the name implies, the personal interview consists of
an interviewer asking questions of one or more
respondents in a face-to-face situation. The
interviewer’s role is to get in touch with the
respondent(s), ask the desired questions, and record
the answers obtained.
 Advantages
• According to Katherine Smith (1989), mall intercepts have the following
advantages:
• 1. They allow researchers to conduct visual, auditory and taste tests of ads,
products and other physical stimuli.
• 2. They offer an opportunity to obtain immediate response.
• 3. They potentially provide more depth of response than non-face-to-face
interviews.
• 4. Researchers can use equipment to analyze responses (for example, voice-pitch
or eye movement tracking analysis).
• 5. A large number of respondents from a wide geographic area can be interviewed
in a limited time.
• 6. Researchers can control the interviewing environment and supervise the
interviewer.
 THE TELEPHONE INTERVIEW
Telephone interviews are often used in lieu of personal
interviews, especially when personal contact is
desired, when the information must be collected
quickly and inexpensively, and when the amount of
information required is relatively limited
 THE MAIL INTERVIEW
• Mail interviews have in the past been widely used.
Mail questions provide great versatility at relatively
low cost and are particularly cost effective when
included as part of a scheduled mailing, such as a
monthly correspondence or billing
 WEB AND E-MAIL INTERVIEWS
• As computer coverage in home markets increase, the
use of electronic surveys has increased. Web and e-
mail surveys are fulfilling their promise to be a driving
force in marketing research.
 Pretesting and Pilot Survey
• Pretesting is an activity related to the development of
the questionnaire or measurement instrument to be
used in a survey or experiment Pretesting a
questionnaire answers two broad questions:
1. Are we asking “good” questions?
2. Does the questionnaire flow smoothly, and is the
question sequence is logical?
 Continue....
• In contrast, a pilot survey is a small-scale test of what
the survey is to be, including all activities that will go
into the final survey.
 CONCEPT OF QUESTIONNAIRE

• What is a QUESTIONNAIRE ?

-> A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of

questions people answer about their life condition, beliefs or attitudes.

-> A questionnaire can be administered either as a printed document that

respondents fill out or as a list of queries posed by an interviewer, who
then compiles interviewees’ answers either by writing on a printed form
or by recording the replies on audio tape or videotape.
 ADVANTAGES OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread
geographically.

2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents'

own words.

3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought answers.

4. Respondents who are not easily approachable , can also be reached

conveniently.
 DISADVANTAGES OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires.

2. It can be used only when the respondents are educated and

cooperating.

3. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly

representative.

4. This method is time consuming and very slow in process.

 KEY FEATURES FOR CONSTRUCTING A
QUESTIONNAIRE

• The researcher must be well acquainted with the research problem.

• Rough draft of the Questionnaire should be prepared and questions must be in

sequence.

• Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the
rough draft for a better one. Technical defects must be identified and removed
if any.

• Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions for the
respondents so that they may not feel any difficulty in answering the questions.
 TYPES OF QUESTIONS IN QUESTIONNAIRE'S

1. Open Format Questions

2. Closed Format Questions
3. Leading Questions
4. 4.Dichotomous Questions
5. Likert Questions
6. Importance Questions
QUESTIONS TO BE AVOIDED IN A QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Embarrassing questions

2. Positive / Negative Connotation questions

3. Hypothetical questions
 STEPS TO DEVELOP A QUESTIONNAIRE

• Determine which information is being sought.

• Choose a question type (structure and amount of disguise) and method of
administration (for example – written form , e-mail , telephone , interview etc.).
• Determine the general question content needed to obtain the desired information.
• Determine the form of response
• Choose the exact question wording.
• Arrange the questions into an effective sequence.
• Specify the physical characteristics of the Questionnaire , such as – paper type ,
number of questions per page , etc..
• Test the Questionnaire and revise it as needed.
 FORMAT OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

1. What type of Company do you require?

(a) Resident Company

(b) Exempt Company
(c) Qualifying Company

....................................................
2. Do you require a ready-made Company? Yes/No

* If "Yes", state the name of any ready-made Company which may have been
reserved for you.

.............................................LIMITED
3. Company Name

If you require a name of your own choice (i.e. a company incorporated to order or the
change of name of a ready-made one) enter your choice of names in order of
reference. Please clarify the meaning of any initials appearing in the proposed names.

1. ...............................................

2. ...............................................

3. ...............................................
4. Principal Objects

Our companies are normally incorporated using the standard clause 3 a(attached hereto) covering financial and property
investments, holding company and general trading activities. Is this clause suitable for your purposes?
Yes/No
If not, please state objects required.
.........................................................

5. Share Capital

Unless otherwise requested, the share capital for a ready-made company or

one made to order will be 1000 shares of £1.00 each. Alternatively, please
insert your requirements hereunder:

Number of shares.............................
Currency and value....................................
Measurement scales
• Measurement can be defined as a process of
associating numbers to observations obtained in a
research study.

• The variables associated with a study are classified into

two basic categories:
a) Quantitative/ Numeric
b) Qualitative / Categorical
Incidentally, only quantitative variables can be measured
with the help of standard counting devices and qualitative
variables can only be observed , there is no standard device
or instrument to measure them.
For example, in case of human beings, there are certain
Quantitative( physical) characteristics like height,
weight etc and there are certain qualitative ( abstract)
characteristics like beauty, attitude, creativity etc.
Like human beings, a business organization has also some
Physical characteristics like employees, sales, offices
etc. Being physical in nature these are easily measurable.

However, there are certain abstract characteristics like

reputation of the employees, image of the
entity, motivation, work culture, commitment,
trust, customer’s perception, feelings of customers.
All these are extremely important because they help the
company to stay afloat and grow.
• Therefore characteristics have to be measured for their
meaningful assessment .This can be done by assigning
some numbers and forming scales.
Classification or Types of Measurement Scales
• All measurement scales can be classified into the
following four categories:
(i) Nominal
(ii) Ordinal
(iii)Interval
(iv)Ratio
 Distinctive classification( Nominal Data)

A measure that can be used to classify objects or their

characteristics into distinctive classes /categories is said
to have this property. For example: gender classifies the
individuals into distinctive groups, males and females.
The individuals may also be classified on the basis of their
Occupation, like student, salaried, businessman etc.
Similarly, the qualification of an individual could be used
to classify individuals into various categories such as
undergraduate, postgraduate, professional etc.
Similarly, we can classify a person based on marital
status like married, unmarried, widowed, divorced.
 Order ( Ordinal Data)
A measure is said to have an order if the objects or their
characteristics can be arranged in a meaningful order. For
example, marks of a student (Quantitative data) can be
arranged in an ascending or descending order. As another
example, a consumer may asked to rank four telecom
service providers ( say A, B, C and D) on the basis of
the
connectivity.( Qualitative data)
 Equal distance/Interval

If for a measure the difference between any two

consecutive categories of a measured attribute are equal
then the measure is said to have equal distance.
For example, in temperature readings the difference
between 400 C and 500 C is same as between 600 C and
700 C.
Similarly the Time measurement also follow the same
property.
 Fixed Origin
A measurement scale is said to have a fixed origin if
there
is a meaningful zero or absence of the characteristics.
Examples are income of an individual, sales of a
company, Profit of a company. etc.
Zero income signifies absence of income, Zero sales
signifies absence of sales
 Types of Scales
1. Nominal Scale : This scale is used to divide the population into various
subgroups/categories or classes. It do not satisfy the other three properties
mentioned above.
It is termed as ‘nominal’, as though one may represent the categories using
numbers , the numbers are just for namesake, they do not carry any value or
order or meaning.
Example: If we put up a question like ‘which type of vehicle is used for going to
office ?
The answer could be bus, car, motor cycle, auto etc. Numerical value can be
assigned to classify these categories like 1,2, 3, 4. Sometimes codes are used for
classification like STD codes for cities, codes for various subjects in a university etc.

The data collected through a nominal scale is known as a nominal data.

 2. Ordinal Scale
A qualitative scale with order is called an ordinal scale.
This scale possesses first two of the four properties of
the scale , i.e. the properties of distinctive classification as
well as order or rank like 1st , 2nd, 3rd etc.
The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no
attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal.
For example, if in a class of students , the highest mark is
95 , next is 85 and the next is 84, converting marks to
ranks will lead to 1,2, and 3. Incidentally, it may be noted
that the difference in the performance of the 1st ranker and
2nd ranker is not the same as the 2nd ranker and 3rd ranker.
Thus, one can only conclude that 1st ranker has performed better
than 2nd ranker and 2nd ranker better than 3rd ranker.
• The data obtained using ordinal scale is termed as
ordinal data.
Some examples are:
● Ratings of hotels, restaurants and movies. We can say
5 star hotel is better than a 4 star hotel, but we cannot
say that a 4 star hotel is twice good as a 2 star hotel.
● Class of travel in a train or an aero plane.
● grades of students in a class.
 3. Interval Scale
A measurement scale whose successive values represent
equal value of the characteristics that is being measured,
and whose base value is not fixed, is called an interval
scale.
This is a quantitative scale of measure without a fixed
or true zero.
Some examples are temperature( Fahrenheit scale) , time,
longitude, latitude etc.
 4. Ratio Scale
Ratio scales are quantitative measures with fixed or true
zero.
Ratio scales has all four properties of scales that are
described above.
For example, a weighing scale is a ratio scale. Some other
examples are height, price, sales, revenue, profit etc. In all
these cases zero implies absence of that characteristic.
 Nominal
• Nominal scales are used for labeling variables, without
any quantitative value. “Nominal” scales could simply
be called “labels
 Ordinal
• With ordinal scales, it is the order of the values is
what’s important and significant, but the differences
between each one is not really known.
Example of Interval Scale
 Likert scales
• It is popular for measuring attitudes.
• In this technique the respondent indicate their own attitudes by checking
how strongly they agree or disagree with carefully worded statements
that range from very positive to very negative towards the attitudinal
object.
• Respondent generally choose from five alternatives (strongly agree,
agree ,neither agree nor disagree, disagree strongly disagree)
• Disadvantages of Likert scale is that it takes longer time to complete than
other itemised rating scales because respondent have to read each
statement.
• Despite the above disadvantages it has several advantages,it is easy to
construct, administer and use.
 The Modified Likert Scale
• To measure intensity of agreement or disagreement on a
symmetric scale. For example:
• “Marketing research class is the most valuable class in your
major programs.”
5– Strongly agree
4– Agree
3– Neither agree nor disagree
2– Disagree
1– Strongly disagree
 UNIT-3

SAMPLING
A sample is a part of population, called the 'Universe',
'reference' or 'parent' population.

Sampling is the process or technique of selecting a

sample of appropriate characteristics and adequate
size.
 STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION
 Target vs. accessible populations
• The target population is the population a researcher
would like to generalize to. Often this isn’t possible, so
the accessible population is used. For example, a
researcher might want to target all male elementary
teachers in the India, but actually collects data from
the male elementary teachers in Delhi
 Need for sampling
1. Complete enumeration may not be possible.
2. Resources: Lower cost, Lesser demand on personnel.
3. Speed: Faster results due to lesser coverage.
4. Reliable information: Due to small size - better trained personnel, more
accurate methods, better supervision.
• To draw conclusions about population from sample, there are two major
requirements for a sample.
– Firstly, the sample size should be large.
– Secondly, the sample has to be selected appropriately so that it is
representative of the population. Sample should have all the
characteristics of the population.
 Disadvantages of sampling
1. Sampling entails an argument from the fraction to the whole.
Validity depends on representativeness of the sample.

2. Fails to provide precise information in case of small segments

containing few individuals.

3. Not necessary in studies where complete enumeration is needed.

4. May cause a feeling of discrimination among the subjects who

are not included in the study.
 Definitions
• Population: The target group to which the findings (of a study) would
ultimately apply is called population1
Or
• Population is the term statisticians use to describe a large set or
collection of items that have something in common 2.

• Sample: is that part of the target population which is actually enquired

upon or investigated1.
Or
• Sample is a subset of population, selected in such a way that it is
representative of the larger population2
 Definitions cont..
• Sampling unit: is the unit of selection
• Unit of study or element: is the subject on which information is
obtained.
• Sampling frame: list of all sampling units in the target
population is called a sampling frame.
• Sample size: the number of units or subjects sampled for
inclusion in the study is called sample size.
• Sampling technique: Method of selecting sampling units from
sampling frame
 Types of sampling techniques

Non-
Probability
probability
samples
samples
 I.PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
• It is a technique wherein the sample are gathered in a process that given all
the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.

• In this sampling technique, the researcher must guarantee that every

individual has an equal opportunity for selection.

• The advantage of using a random sample is the absence of both systematic &
sampling bias.

• The effect of this is a minimal or absent systematic bias, which is a difference

between the results from the sample & those from the population.
 1.Simple random sampling
• This is the most pure & basic probability sampling design.

• In this type of sampling design, every member of population has an equal

chance of being selected as subject.

• The entire process of sampling is done in a single step, with each subject
selected independently of the other members of the population

• There is need of two essential prerequisites to implement the simple

random technique: population must be homogeneous & researcher
must have list of the elements/members of the accessible population.
• The first step of the simple random sampling technique is to identify the
accessible population & prepare a list of all the elements/members of
the population. The list of the subjects in population is called as sampling
frame & sample drawn from sampling frame by using following methods:

The lottery method

The use of table of random numbers

The use of computer

 2.Systematic Random Sampling
• It can be likened to an arithmetic progression, wherein the difference
between any two consecutive numbers is the same.

• It involves the selection of every Kth case from list of group, such as every
10th person on a patient list or every 100th person from a phone directory.

• Systematic sampling is sometimes used to sample every Kth person entering

a bookstore, or passing down the street or leaving a hospital & so forth

• Systematic sampling can be applied so that an essentially random sample is

drawn.
 3.Stratified Random Sampling
• This method is used for heterogeneous population.

• It is a probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides

the entire population into different homogeneous subgroups or strata,
& then randomly selects the final subjects proportionally from the
different strata.

• The strata are divided according selected traits of the population such
as age, gender, religion, socio-economic status, diagnosis, education,
geographical region, type of institution, type of care, type of
registered nurses, nursing area specialization, site of care, etc.
 Stratified random sampling(contd.)
• For example, if we draw a simple random sample from a population, a
sample of 100 may contain
– 10 to 15 from high socioeconomic group
– 20 to 25 from middle socioeconomic group
– 70 to 75 from low socioeconomic group

• To get adequately large representation for all the three socio economic
structures, we can stratify on socioeconomic class and select simple
random samples from each of the three strata.
 4.Cluster sampling
• The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like families. A
simple random sample is taken of the subgroups and then all
members of the cluster selected are surveyed.

• Cluster sampling is used when the population is heterogeneous.

• Clusters are formed by grouping units on the basis of their

geographical locations.

• Cluster sampling is a very useful method for the field epidemiological

research and for health administrators.
 5.Multi-stage Sampling
 Refers to a sampling techniques which is carried out in various stages.

 Population is regarded as made of a number of primary units each of

which further composed of a number of secondary units.

 Consists of sampling first stage units by some suitable method of

sampling.

 From among the selected first stage units, a sub- sample of secondary
stage units is drawn by some suitable method of sampling which may be
same as or different from the method used in selecting first stage unit.
 Multi-stage Sampling Continue
• In this method, the whole population is divided in first stage sampling
units from which a random sample is selected.
• The selected first stage is then subdivided into second stage units from
which another sample is selected.
• Third and fourth stage sampling is done in the same manner if necessary.
• Example:
– NFHS data is collected by multistage sampling.
• Rural areas – 2 stage sampling – Villages from list by PPS,
Households from village
• Urban areas – Wards (PPS) – CEB (PPS) – 30 households from each
CEB
 6.Sequential Sampling
• This method of sample selection is slightly different
from other methods.
• Here the sample size is not fixed. The investigator
initially selects small sample & tries out to make
inferences; if not able to draw results, he or she then
adds more subjects until clear-cut inferences can be
drawn.
 II.NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
• It is a technique wherein samples are gathered in a process that does not
give all the individual in the population equal chances of being selected.

• Most researchers are bound by time, money, & workforce, & because of
these limitations, it is almost impossible to randomly sample the entire
population & it is often necessary to employ another sampling
technique, the nonprobability sampling technique.

• Subject in a nonprobability sample are usually selected on the basis of

their accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the
researcher
 Uses of Non probability Sampling
• This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a
particular trait exists in the population.
• It can also be used when researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot , or
exploratory study.
• It can be used when randomization is not possible like when the
population is almost limitless.
• it can be used when the research does not aim to generate results
that will be used to create generalizations.
• It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time, &
workforce.
• This technique can also be used in an initial study (pilot study)
• Types of the Nonprobability Sampling

Purposive/judgmental sampling
Convenience/grab/availability sampling
Consecutive sampling
Quota sampling
Snow ball sampling
 1.Purposive/deliberate sampling
• It is more commonly known as ‘judgmental’ or ‘authoritative
sampling’.
• In this type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the
sample with a specific purpose in mind.
• In purposive sampling, the researcher believes that some
subjects are fit for research compared to other individual. This
is the reason why they are purposively chosen as subject.
• In this sampling technique, samples are chosen by choice not by
chance, through a judgment made the researcher based on his
or her knowledge about the population
• For example, a researcher wants to study the lived experiences of post
disaster depression among people living in earthquake affected areas of
Gujarat.

In this case, a purposive sampling technique is used to select the subjects

who were the victims of the earthquake disaster & have suffered post
disaster depression living in earthquake-affected areas of Gujarat.

In this study, the researcher selected only those people who fulfill the
criteria as well as particular subjects that are the typical & representative
part of population as per the knowledge of the researcher.
 2.Convenience/haphazard Sampling
• It is probably the most common of all sampling techniques because
it is fast, inexpensive, easy, & the subject are readily available.
• It is a non probability sampling technique where subjects are
selected because of their convenient accessibility & proximity to
the researcher.
• The subjects are selected just because they are easiest to recruit
for the study & the researcher did not consider selecting subjects
that are representative of the entire population
• It is also known as an accidental sampling.
• Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit.
For example, if a researcher wants to conduct a study on the older
people residing in Bhopal, & the researcher observes that he can
meet several older people coming for morning walk in a park
located near his residence in Bhopal, he can choose these people
as his research subjects.

These subjects are readily accessible for the researcher & may
help him to save time, money, & resources.(man on the streets)
 3.Consecutive Sampling
• It is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to include
all accessible subjects as part of the sample.
• This nonprobability sampling technique can be considered as the best of
all nonprobability samples because it include all the subjects that are
available, which makes the sample a better representation of the entire
population.
• It is also known as total enumerative sampling.
• In this sampling technique, the investigator pick up all the
available subjects who are meeting the preset inclusion &
exclusion criteria.
• This technique is generally used in small-sized populations.
• For example, if a researcher wants to study the activity pattern
of post kidney-transplant patient, he can selects all the post
kidney transplant patients who meet the designed inclusion &
exclusion criteria, & who are admitted in post-transplant ward
during a specific time period.
 4.Quota Sampling
• It is nonprobability sampling technique wherein the researcher
ensures equal or proportionate representation of subjects,
depending on which trait is considered as the basis of the quota.

• The bases of the quota are usually age, gender, education, race,
religion, & socio-economic status.

• For example, if the basis of the quota is college level & the research
needs equal representation, with a sample size of 100, he must select
25 first-year students, another 25 second-year students, 25 third-
year, & 25 fourth-year students.
 5.Snowball/networking Sampling
• It is a nonprobability sampling technique that is used by researchers to
identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate such
as drug abusers, HIV/AIDS etc.

• For example, a researcher wants to conduct a study on the prevalence of

HIV/AIDS among commercial workers.

• In this situation, snowball sampling is the best choice for such studies to
select a sample.

• This type of sampling technique works like chain referral. Therefore it is also
known as chain referral sampling.
 Errors of Observation
• Interview error- interaction between interviewer and person
being surveyed

• Respondent error: respondents have difficult time

answering the question

• Measurement error: inaccurate responses when person

doesn’t understand question or poorly worded question

• Errors in data collection

 UNIT-4
DATA COLLECTION FIELD FORCE
 Introduction
• Field research is the collection of information outside of a
laboratory, library or workplace setting. The approaches and
methods used in field research vary across disciplines.
• For example, biologists who conduct field research may simply
observe animals interacting with their environments, whereas social
scientists conducting field research may interview or observe people
in their natural environments to learn their languages, folklore, and
social structures.
• Any activity aimed at collecting primary (original or otherwise
unavailable) data, using methods such as face-to-face interviewing,
telephone and postal survey, and direct observation.
 Types of Field Research
Main types of Field Research are:
 Ethnography
 Ethnomethodology
 Phenomenological Study

Purposes of field research:

 Data collection
 Theory construction
 Ethnography
• A way of building an understanding the culture and
behaviours of a group as a whole.
• Done in a field site where a group of people share a
common culture.
 Ethno methodology
The study of commonsense knowledge
How do individuals make sense of social situations and
act on their knowledge?
What are the tacit rules used by members of a culture?
Detailed studies of interactions
 Phenomenological Study
• Understanding an experience from a research
participant's point of view
• Interview several participants as to their perceptions
of an experience
 What Do field Researchers Do?
Field researchers study events that only occur in the field.
Observe ordinary events and everyday activities as they
happen in natural settings, in addition to any unusual
occurrences.
Field researcher systematically study everyday life,
primarily through long-term, face to-face interactions and
observations. In fact, observations using sight, sound,
touch, taste, and smell are essential to this type of
research.
 Continues.
 Becomes directly involved with the people being studied and
personally experiences the process of daily social life in the
field settings.
 A primary goal of field researcher is to understand daily life
from the perspectives of people in a setting or social group of
interest.
 Acquires an insider’s point of view while maintaining the
analytic perspective or distinct of an outsider.
 Uses a variety of techniques and social skills in a flexible
manner as the situation demands.
 Steps in performing field research

The process of doing a field research study is more flexible and less
structured than qualitative research.
Step 1 : Design the field work.
Step 2 : Selection of cities/centres.
Step 3 : Organising field work
Step 4 : Quotas
Step 5 : Selection of respondents.
Step 6 : Control procedure on the field.
Step 7 : Briefing
Step 8 : Debriefing
 Step 1: Design the Field Work
There are 3 aspects of preparing for the field.
• Be flexible
• Organize yourself
• Be self aware
 Step 2:Selection of Cities/Centres
• Select a site
a natural location where a researcher conducts field
research.
Research question guide to select a site
The factors are relevant
i. Richness of data
ii. suitability
 Step 3: Organising Field Work
 Once the centres for the field work are finalised, it has
to be organised in each of these places.
 The researchers or agency may or may not have its
own offices in each of the centres.
 If it has an office, a field supervisor from the office is
sent a written brief and a copy of questionnaire, and
asked to recruit a field force and conduct a briefing of
them.
 Step 4: Quotas/Group
 Most large consumer marketing research studies have
quotas or group like age,income gender etc.of the
respondent. Because the output has to be analysed by
these characteristics.
 Step 5:Selection of Respondents
 The field supervisor actually leads the team of field
workers on the field, and instructs them on how to
select a household.
 Absorb and experience
 Watch and listen
 Record the data
 Notes
 Step 6:Control Procedures On The Field
• To ensure that a field worker is doing his job, the field
supervisor can randomly go back to a few addresses
and talk to the respondent to ensure that they were
interviewed accurately.
 Step 7:Briefing
• Before the field workers are sent on the field to do
interviews, they are given a thorough briefing by the
field supervisors and also clear their doubts if any.
 Step 8: Debriefing
• After returning from field work on Day One or at the
end of survey in a city in a given centre, there is usually
a debriefing session where any problem in the field are
discussed, and solutions found by the supervisors.
 Notes of field research
• JOTTED NOTES-Are written in the field. They are short,
temporary memory triggers such as words, phrases ,or
drawings taken inconspicuously, often scribbled on any
convenient item. They are incorporated into direct
observation notes but are never substituted for them.
• Direct observation notes- Field research notes that
attempt to include all details and specifics of what the
researcher heard or saw in a field site ,and are written
to permit multiple interpretations later.
• The notes should be ordered chronologically with the
data ,time ,and place on each entry.
• Researcher inference notes- A researcher should listen
to members in order to “climb into their skin” “or walk
in their shoes”. RIN involves three step process:
• Listen without applying analytical categories
• Compare what is heard to what was heard at other
times and to what others say
• Then apply your own interpretation to infer or figure
out what it means.
• Analytic Memos- Analytic memos are part of the
theoretical notes. They are systematic digressions into
theory , where a researcher elaborates on ideas in depth
, expands on ideas while still in the field , and modifies
or develops more complex theory by reading and
thinking about the memos.
• Personal notes- A researcher keeps a section of notes
that is like a personal diary. He or she records personal
life events and feelings in it (I am tense today)
• Personal notes provide a way to cope with stress. For
example, if you were in a good mood during
observations , it might color what you observed.
• Maps and diagrams- Field researchers often make maps
and draw diagrams or pictures of the features of a field
sites. FR find three types of maps helpful: spatial , social ,
and temporal.
• A spatial map locates people , equipment ,and
geographical physical space to show where activities occur.
• A social map shows the number or variety of people and
the arrangements among them of power , influence ,
friendship ,division of labor.
• Interview notes- A researcher conducts field
interviews , he or she keeps the interview notes
separate.
• In addition to recording or answers , he or she creates a
face sheet.
• This is a page at the beginning of the notes with
information such as the data, place of interview,
characteristics of interviewee, content of the interview,
and so on.
 Methods of field research
There are main three types of methods use in field
research:
• Direct observation
• Participant observation
• Qualitative interviews
 Direct observation
• Data is gathered primarily through close visual inspection of a
natural setting
• Rather than actively engaging members of a setting in
conversations or interviews, the direct observer strives to be
unobtrusive and detached from the setting
• Direct observation is not necessarily an alternative to other types
of field methods, such as participant observation or qualitative
interviews. Rather, it may be an initial approach to understanding
a setting, a group of individuals, or forms of behavior prior to
interacting with members or developing interview protocols.
 Advantages & disadvantages
Advantage of direct observation:
• It offers contextual data on settings, interactions, or
individuals
Disadvantage of direct observation:
• Behaviors observed during direct observation may be
unusual or atypical
 Participant observation
• A field research method whereby the researcher
develops an understanding of the composition of a
particular setting or society by taking part in the
everyday routines and rituals alongside its members
• Originally developed in the early 20th century by
anthropologists researching native societies in
developing countries; now employed by researchers
studying a range of issues.
 Advantages & disadvantages
Advantages:
• The ethnographer develops a rich, "thick" understanding
of a setting and of the members within a society
Disadvantages:
• The researcher must devote a large amount of time (and
money) to develop this complex understanding.
• An ethnographer's objectivity may decline as he or she
spends more time among the members.
 Qualitative interviews
• Qualitative interviews are a type of field research method that elicits
information and data by directly asking questions of members.
There are three primary types of qualitative interviews: informal,
conversational; semi-structured; standardized, and open-ended.
• Informal, Conversational Interview:
• The researcher begins conversing with a member from a setting. As
the conversation unfolds, the researcher formulates specific
questions, often spontaneously, and begins asking them informally
• Appropriate when the researcher wants maximum flexibility to
pursue topics and ideas as they emerge during the exchange.
 Advantages & disadvantages
Advantage:
• Allows researcher to be responsive to individual
differences and to capture emerging information
Disadvantage:
• May generate less systematic data, which are difficult
to classify and analyze.
 UNIT-5
DATA ANALYSIS
 HYPOTHESIS
• A hypothesis is an assertion that variables (measured concepts) are related
in a specific way such that this relationship explains certain facts or
phenomena. From a practical standpoint, hypotheses may be developed to
solve a problem, answer a question, or imply a possible course of action.
Outcomes are predicted if a specific course of action is followed.
• Hypotheses must be empirically testable. A hypothesis is often stated as a
research question when reporting either the purpose of the investigation or
the findings.
• The hypothesis may be stated informally as a research question, or more
formally as an alternative hypothesis, or in a testable form known as a null
hypothesis. The null hypothesis makes a statement that no difference exists
 Null Hypothesis (H0)
• Statements identifying relationships that are statistically testable
and can be shown not to hold (nullified).
• The logic of the null hypothesis is that if we hypothesize no
difference, and we “reject” the hypotheses if a difference is
found.
• If, however we confirm that no difference exists, then we
"tentatively accept" the null hypothesis. We may only accept the
null on a "tentative" basis because another testing of the null
hypothesis using a new sample may reveal that sampling error
was present and that the null hypothesis should be rejected.
 Alternative hypothesis
• Alternative hypotheses may be considered to be the
opposite of the null hypotheses.
• The alternative hypothesis makes a formal statement
of expected difference, and may state simply that a
difference exists or that a directional difference exists,
depending upon how the null hypothesis is stated.
• Because population differences may exist, even if not
verified by the current sample data, the alternative
form is considered to be empirically non-testable.
 Testing hypothesis
• Testing hypotheses is the broad objective that
underlies all decisional research.
• Sometimes the population as a whole can be
measured and profiled in its entirety. Often,
• however, we cannot measure everyone in the
population but instead must estimate the population
using a sample of respondents drawn from the
population
 Acceptable Error in Hypothesis Testing
• A question that continually plagues analysts is, what
significance level should be used in hypothesis testing? The
significance level refers to the amount of error we are willing
to accept in our decisions that are based on the hypothesis
test. Hypotheses testing involves specifying the Value , which
is the allowable amount of Type I error.
• In hypothesis testing the sample results sometimes lead us to
reject H0 when it is true. This is a Type I error. On other
occasions the sample findings may lead us to accept H0 when
it is false. This is a Type II error. The
• A Type I error occurs when we incorrectly conclude
that a difference exists. This is sometimes called the
hypothesis of no difference.
• 2. A Type II error occurs when we accept a null
hypothesis when it is in reality false (we find no
difference when a difference really does exist).
 Comparing means
• Correlation and regression look for relationships
between variables
• Tests comparing means look for differences between
the means of two or more samples
• General null hypothesis: the samples come from the
same population
• General research hypothesis: the samples come from
different populations
 Choosing a statistical test: normality

• There are two sets of statistical tests for comparing

means:
• Parametric tests: work with normally distributed scale
data
• Non-parametric tests: used with not normally
distributed scale data and with ordinal data
 The t-test

•Parametric: works on normally distributed scale data

•Compares TWO means
•There are different versions for different designs
 Types of t-test
•One sample: compare the mean of a sample to a
predefined value
•Dependent (related) samples: compare the means of
two conditions in which the same (or closely matched)
participants participated
•Independent (unrelated) samples:compare the means
of two groups of participants
 The One Sample T-test
• The One-sample t-test is used to compare a sample mean
to a specific value (e.g., a population parameter; a neutral
point on a Likert-type scale, chance performance, etc.).
• Examples:1.A study investigating whether stock brokers
differ from the general population on some rating scale
where the mean for the general population is known.
• 2. An observational study to investigate whether scores
differ from chance.
 Assumptions
The one-sample t-test requires the following statistical
assumptions:
• 1.Random and Independent sampling.
• 2.Data are from normally distributed populations.
 Paired-Sample
• Two observations from each participant
• The second observation is dependent upon the first
since they come from the same person.
• Comparing the mean of differences to a distribution of
mean difference scores
 Independent t-Test
• Single observation from each participant from two
independent groups
• The observation from the second group is independent
from the first since they come from different subjects.
• Comparing the difference between two means to a
distribution of differences between mean scores.
 UNIT – VI
REPORT WRITING
 Research presentation
• Research report is considered a major component of the
research study for the research task remains incomplete
till the report has been presented and/or written.
• As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis,
highly well designed and conducted research study, and
the most striking generalizations and findings are of little
value unless they are effectively communicated to others.
• The purpose of research is not well served unless the
findings are made known to others.
 Types Of Report
• (a)Technical Report- In the technical report the main
emphasis is on
(i) the methods employed,
(ii) assumptions made in the course of the study,
(iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including
their limitations and supporting data.
• (B) Popular Report - The popular report is one which gives
emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness.
• The simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical,
details and liberal use of charts and diagrams.
• Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings,
even an occasional cartoon now and then is another
characteristic feature of the popular report.
 Qualities Of A Good Research
1. Good research is systematic
2. Good research is logical
3. Good research is empirical
4. Good research is replicable
 Main Text Of The Report
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the
research and an explanation of the methodology adopted in
accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement
of findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the
findings are extensive, they should be summarized.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again
put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the
final summing up.
 SOURCES

1. Research Methodology by C.R. Kothari.

2. Internet Sources.
3. An Introduction to Marketing Research, Scott M.
Smith James Passey Professor of Marketing Founder,
Qualtrics Gerald S. Albaum Emeritus Professor of
Marketing University of New Mexico