4.ce417 Note Ch4 Part 1

Chapter 4
Loading and Hauling

Part 1
CE 417 King Saud University 1
4-1 ESTIMATINGEQUIPMENT TRAVEL TIME
• Cycle time = Fixed time + Variable time (4-1)

• Fixed time represents those components of
cycle time other than travel time. It includes:
– spot time (moving the unit into position to begin loading),
– load time,
– maneuver time, and
– dump time.
• Fixed time can usually be closely estimated for a
particular type of operation.
4-1 ESTIMATINGEQUIPMENT TRAVEL TIME
• Variable time represents the travel time

required for a unit to haul material to the
unloading site and return.
• It depends on:
– the vehicle's weight and power,
– the condition of the haul road,
– the grades encountered, and
– the altitude above sea level.

Rolling Resistance
• It is used to determine the maximum speed of a
vehicle in a specific situation.
• The resistance that a vehicle encounters in
traveling over a surface is made up of two
components:
– rolling resistance and
– grade resistance.
• Total resistance = Grade resistance + Rolling
resistance (4-2)
Rolling Resistance
• Resistance may be expressed in either:
– pounds per ton of vehicle weight (kilograms per metric
ton) or in
– pounds (kilograms).
• To avoid confusion, the term resistance factor will be
used in this chapter to denote resistance in Ib/ton
(kg/t).
• Rolling resistance is primarily due to:
– tire flexing and
– penetration of the travel surface.
Rolling Resistance
• The rolling resistance factor:
– for a rubber-tired vehicle equipped with
conventional tires moving over a hard, smooth,
level surface = 40 Ib/ton of vehicle weight (20
kg/t).
– For vehicles equipped with radial tires, the rolling
resistance factor = 30 Ib/ton (15 kg/t).
– It increases about 30 lb/ton (15 kg/t) for each inch
(2.5 cm) of tire penetration.

Rolling Resistance
• This leads to the following equation for
estimating rolling resistance factors:
– Rolling resistance factor (lb/ton) = 40 + (30 × in.
penetration) (4-3A)
– Rolling resistance factor (kg/t) = 20 + (6 × cm
penetration)(4-3B)

Rolling Resistance
• The rolling resistance in pounds (kilograms)
= the rolling resistance factor × the vehicle's
weight in tons (metric tons).
• Table 4-1 provides typical values for the rolling
resistance factor in construction situations.

TABLE 4-1 Typical values of rolling resistance factor

Rolling Resistance
• Crawler tractors may be thought of as
traveling over a road created by their own
tracks.
– As a result, crawler tractors are usually considered
to have no rolling resistance when calculating
vehicle resistance and performance.
• The rolling resistance of crawler tractors does
vary somewhat between different surfaces.

Rolling Resistance
• The standard method for rating crawler tractor
power (drawbar horsepower) measures the power
actually produced at the hitch when operating on a
standard surface.
– Thus, the rolling resistance of the tractor over the
standard surface has already been subtracted from the
tractor's performance.
• The rolling resistance of the towed vehicle must be
considered in calculating the total resistance of the
combination.
Grade Resistance
• Grade resistance represents that component
of vehicle weight which acts parallel to an
inclined surface.
– When the vehicle is traveling up a grade, grade
resistance is positive.
– When traveling downhill, grade resistance is
negative.

Grade Resistance
5 ft 5 ft
100  5%
100 ft
100 ft
Grade Resistance
• The exact value of grade resistance may be found by
multiplying the vehicle's weight by the sine of the
angle that the road surface makes with the
horizontal.
• For the grades usually encountered in construction,
it is sufficiently accurate to use the approximation
of Equation 4-4.
– Grade resistance factor (lb/ton) =20 × grade (%) (4-
4A)
– Grade resistance factor (kg/t) =10 × grade (%) (4-4B)
Grade Resistance
• That is, a 1% grade (representing a rise of 1
unit in 100 units of horizontal distance) is
considered to have a grade resistance equal to
1% of the vehicle's weight.
– This corresponds to a grade resistance factor of 20
lb/ton (10 kg/t) for each 1% of grade,

Grade Resistance
• Grade resistance (lb or kg) may be calculated
using Equation 4-5 or 4-6.
– Grade resistance (lb) = Vehicle weight (tons) × Grade
resistance factor (lb/ton) (4-5A)
– Grade resistance (kg) =Vehicle weight (t) × Grade
resistance factor (kg/t) (4-5B)
– Grade resistance (lb) =Vehicle weight (lb) × Grade (4-
6A)
– Grade resistance (kg) =Vehicle weight (kg) x Grade (4-
6B)
Effective Grade
• The total resistance to movement of a vehicle
– (the sum of its rolling resistance and grade
resistance)
– might be expressed in pounds or kilograms.
• OR expressing total resistance is to state it as a
grade (%),
– A grade resistance equivalent to total resistance
actually encountered.

Effective Grade
• Effective grade may be easily calculated by use
of Equation 4-7.
– Effective grade (%) = Grade (%) + Rolling resistance
factor (lb/ton)/20 (4-7A)
– Effective grade (%) =Grade (%) + Rolling resistance
factor (kg/t)/10 (4-7B)

EXAMPLE 4-1
• A wheel tractor-scraper weighing 100 tons (91
t) is being operated on a haul road with a tire
penetration of 2 in. (5 cm).
• What is the total resistance (lb and kg) and
effective grade when
– (a) the scraper is ascending a slope of 5%;
– (b) the scraper is descending a slope of 5%?

EXAMPLE 4-1
• Solution
Rolling resistance factor = 40 + (30 × 2) =100 lb/ton
[= 20 + (6 × 5) =50 kg/t]
Rolling resistance = 100 (lb/ton) × 100 (tons) = 10,000 lb
[= 50 (kg/t) × 91 (t) = 4550 kg]
(a) Grade resistance = 100 (tons) × 2000 (lb/ton) × 0.05
= 10,000 lb
[= 91 (t) x 1000 (kg/t) × 0.05 =4550 kg]
Total resistance = 10,000 lb + 10,000 lb = 20,000 lb
[= 4550 kg + 4550 kg = 9100 kg]

EXAMPLE 4-1
Effective grade =5 + 100/20 =10%
(b) Grade resistance =100 (tons) × 2000(lb/ton)× (-
0.05) = -10,000 lb
[= 91 (t) × 1000 (kg/t) x (-0.05) =-4550 kg]
Total resistance = -10,000 lb + 10,000 lb = 0 lb
[= -4550 kg + 4550 kg = 0 kg)
Effective grade = -5 + 100/20 = 0%
[= -5 + 50/10 = 0%]

EXAMPLE 4-2
• A crawler tractor weighing 80,000 lb (36 t) is
towing a rubber-tired scraper weighing
100,000 lb (45.5 t) up a grade of 4%. What is
the total resistance (lb and kg) of the
combination if the rolling resistance factor is
100 lb/ton (50 kg/t)?

EXAMPLE 4-2
• Solution
Rolling resistance (neglect crawler) = 100 000 (lb)
/2000 (lb/ton) × 100 (lb/ton) = 5000 lb
[=45.5 (t) × 50 (kg/t) =2275kg]
Grade resistance = 180,000 × 0.04 = 7200 lb (4-6A)
[= 81.5 × 1000 kg/t × 0.04 = 3260 kg] (4-6B)
Total resistance = 5000 + 7200 = 12,200 lb
[= 2275 + 3260 = 5535 kg] (4-2)

Effect of Altitude
• All internal combustion engines lose power as
their elevation above sea level increases
because of the decreased density of air at
higher elevations.
• Engine power decreases approximately 3% for
each 1000 ft (305 m).

Effect of Altitude
• Turbocharged engines are more efficient at
higher altitude than are naturally aspirated
engines and may deliver full rated power up to
an altitude of 10,000 ft (3050 m) or more.

Effect of Altitude
• When derating tables are not available,
– the derating factor obtained by the use of Equation
4-8 is sufficiently accurate for estimating the
performance of naturally aspirated engines.
– Derating factor (%) = 3 × [(Altitude (ft) -
3000*)/1000 (4-8A)
– Derating factor (%) = (Altitude (m) - 915*)/102 (4-
8B)
*Substitute maximum altitude for rated performance, if
known.
Effect of Altitude
– The percentage of rated power available
= 100 - the derating factor.

Effect of Traction
• The power available to move a vehicle and its
load is expressed as :
– rimpull for wheel vehicles and
– drawbar pull for crawler tractors.

Effect of Traction
• Rimpull is :
– the pull available at the rim of the driving wheels
under rated conditions.
– Also, the power available at the surface of the
tires.
• Drawbar pull is :
– the power available at the hitch of a crawler
tractor operating under standard conditions.

Effect of Traction
• Factors affect maximum pull of Vehicle are:
a) Operation at increased altitude may reduce the
maximum pull of a vehicle,
• as explained in the previous slides.
b) the maximum traction that can be developed
between the driving wheels or tracks and the road
surface.
Maximum usable pull = Coefficient of traction × Weight on drivers (4-9)
o This represents the maximum pull that a vehicle
can develop, regardless of vehicle horsepower
Effect of Traction
• For crawler tractors and all-wheel-drive
rubber-tired equipment,
– the weight on the drivers is the total vehicle
weight.

TABLE 4-2: Typical values of coefficient of Traction

EXAMPLE 4-3
• A four-wheel drive tractor weighs 44,000 lb
(20000 kg) and produces a maximum rimpull of
40,000 lb (18160 kg) at sea level.
• The tractor is being operated at an altitude of
10,000 ft (3050 m) on wet earth.
• A pull of 22,000 lb (10000 kg) is required to move
the tractor and its load.
• Can the tractor perform under these conditions?
– Use Equation 4-8 to estimate altitude deration.

EXAMPLE 4-3
• Solution
Derating factor = 3 × [(10000 – 3000)/1000]
= 21% (4-8A)
[ = (3050915)/102 =21%] (4-8B)
Percent rated power available=100 21 = 79%
Maximum available power = 40,000 × 0.79
= 31,600 lb
[ = 18160 × 0.79 = 14346 kg]

EXAMPLE 4-3
Coefficient of traction =0.45 (Table 4-2)
Maximum usable pull =0.45 × 44,000 = 19,800lb
(4-9)
[= 0.45 × 20000 = 9000 kg]

EXAMPLE 4-3
• Note on Example 4-3:
– Because the maximum pull as limited by traction is
less than the required pull, the tractor cannot
perform under these conditions.
– For the tractor to operate, it would be necessary to:
• reduce the required pull (total resistance),
• increase the coefficient of traction, or
• increase the tractor's weight on the drivers.

Use of Performance and Retarder Curves
• Crawler tractors may be equipped with direct-

drive (manual gearshift) transmissions.
• The drawbar pull and travel speed of this type
of transmission are
– determined by the gear selected.

• A performance chart indicates:

– the maximum speed that a vehicle can maintain under
rated conditions while overcoming a specified total
resistance.
• A retarder chart indicates :
– the maximum speed at which a vehicle can descend a slope
when the total resistance is negative without using brakes.
– Retarder charts derive their name from the vehicle
retarder, which is a hydraulic device used for controlling
vehicle speed on a downgrade.

• Figure 4-1 illustrates a relatively simple performance

curve of the type often used for crawler tractors.
– Rimpull or drawbar pull is shown on the vertical scale and
maximum vehicle speed on the horizontal scale.
– The procedure for using this type of curve is to first
calculate the required pull or total resistance of the
vehicle and its load (lb or kg).
– Then enter the chart on the vertical scale with the
required pull and move horizontally until you intersect
one or more gear performance curves.

– Drop vertically from the point of intersection to

the horizontal scale.
– The value found represents the maximum speed
that the vehicle can maintain while developing the
specified pull.
– When the horizontal line of required pull
intersects two or more curves for different gears,
use the point of intersection farthest to the right,
because this represents the maximum speed of
the vehicle under the given conditions.
FIGURE 4-1: Typical crawler tractor
performance curve.

EXAMPLE 4-4
• Use the performance curve of Figure 4-1 to determine
the maximum speed of the tractor when the required
pull (total resistance) is 60,000 lb (27240 kg).
• Solution
– Enter Figure 4-1 at a drawbar pull of 60,000 lb (27240 kg) and
move horizontally until you intersect the curves for first and
second gears.
– Read the corresponding speeds of 1.0 mi/h (1.6 km/h) for
second gear and 1.5 mi/h (2.4km/h) for first gear.
– The maximum possible speed is therefore 1.5 mi/h (2.4
km/h) in first gear.

• Figure 4-2 :
– represents a more complex performance curve of
the type frequently used by manufacturers of
tractor-scrapers, trucks, and wagons.
– In addition to curves of speed versus pull, this type
of chart provides a graphical method for
calculating the required pull (total resistance).

• To use this type of curve,

– Enter the top scale at the actual weight of the
vehicle (empty or loaded as applicable).
– Drop vertically until you intersect the diagonal line
corresponding to the percent total resistance (or
effective grade), interpolating as necessary.
– From this point move horizontally until you intersect
one or more performance curves.
– From the point of intersection, drop vertically to find
the maximum vehicle speed.
• When altitude adjustment is required, the

procedure is modified slightly. In this case,
– start with the gross weight on the top scale and
drop vertically until you intersect the total
resistance curve.
– Now, however, move horizontally all the way to
the left scale to read the required pull
corresponding to vehicle weight and effective
grade.

– Next, divide the required pull by the quantity “1

derating factor (expressed as a decimal)” to obtain
an adjusted required pull.
– Now, from the adjusted value of required pull on
the left scale move horizontally to intersect one or
more gear curves and drop vertically to find the
maximum vehicle speed.

• This procedure is equivalent to saying that

when a vehicle produces only one-half of its
rated power due to altitude effects, its
maximum speed can be found from its
standard performance curve by doubling the
actual required pull.
• The procedure is illustrated in Example 4-5.

EXAMPLE 4-5
• Using the performance curve of Figure 4-2,
determine the maximum speed of the vehicle
if :
– its gross weight is 150,000 lb (68000 kg),
– the total resistance is 10%, and
– the altitude derating factor is 25%.

EXAMPLE 4-5
• Solution
– Start on the top scale with a weight of 150,000 lb
(68000 kg), drop vertically to intersect the 10%
total grade line, and move horizontally to find a
required pull of 15,000 lb (6800 kg) on the left
scale.

EXAMPLE 4-5
– Divide 15,000 lb (6800 kg) by 0.75 (1 - derating
factor) to obtain an adjusted required pull of
20,000 lb (9080 kg).
– Enter the left scale at 20,000 lb (9080 kg) and
move horizontally to intersect the first, second,
and third gear curves.
– Drop vertically from the point of intersection with
the third gear curve to find a maximum speed of 6
mi/h (10 km/h).

FIGURE 4-2: Wheel scraper performance curve.
(Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc.)

• Figure 4-3 illustrates a typical retarder curve.

– In this case, it is the retarder curve for the tractor-
scraper whose performance curve is shown in
Figure 4-2.
– The retarder curve is read in a manner similar to
the performance curve.
• Remember, however, that in this case the vertical scale
represents negative total resistance.

• After finding the intersection of the vehicle

weight with effective grade,
– move horizontally until you intersect the retarder
curve.
– Drop vertically from this point to find the
maximum speed at which the vehicle should be
operated.

FIGURE 4-3: Wheel scraper retarder curve.

Estimating Travel Time
• The maximum speed that a vehicle can
maintain over a section of the haul route
cannot be used for calculating travel time over
the section,
– because it does not include vehicle acceleration
and deceleration.

• One Method for accounting for acceleration and
deceleration is:
– to multiply the maximum vehicle speed by an average
speed factor from Table 4-3 to obtain an average vehicle
speed for the section.
– Travel time for the section is then found by dividing the
section length by the average vehicle speed.
– When a section of the haul route involves both starting
from rest and coming to a stop, the average speed factor
from the first column of Table 4-3 should be applied twice
(i.e., use the square of the table value) for that section.

• Second Method for estimating travel time over a
section of haul route is :
– to use the travel-time curves provided by some
manufacturers.
– Separate travel-time curves are prepared for loaded (rated
payload) and empty conditions, as shown in Figures 4-4 and
4-5.
– To adjust for altitude deration when using travel-time curves,
multiply the time obtained from the curve by the quantity
"1+ derating factor" to obtain the adjusted travel time.

Table 4-3: Average speed factors

FIGURE 4-4: Scraper travel-loaded.

FIGURE 4-5: Scraper travel time-empty.

4.ce417 Note Ch4 Part 1

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Chapter 4

Loading and Hauling

• Cycle time = Fixed time + Variable time (4-1)

• Variable time represents the travel time

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• Crawler tractors may be equipped with direct-

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• A performance chart indicates:

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• Figure 4-1 illustrates a relatively simple performance

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– Drop vertically from the point of intersection to

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• To use this type of curve,

• When altitude adjustment is required, the

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– Next, divide the required pull by the quantity “1 ­

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• This procedure is equivalent to saying that

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• Figure 4-3 illustrates a typical retarder curve.

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• After finding the intersection of the vehicle

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– Next, divide the required pull by the quantity “1