Finite Element Methods

• The finite element method (FEM) is a numerical technique for solving

problems which are described by partial differential equations or can be
formulated as functional minimization.
• A domain of interest is represented as an assembly of finite elements.
Approximating functions in finite elements are determined in terms of
nodal values of a physical field which is sought.
• A continuous physical problem is transformed into a discretized finite
element problem with unknown nodal values. For a linear problem a
system of linear algebraic equations should be solved. Values inside finite
elements can be recovered using nodal values.
• Two features of the FEM are worth to be mentioned:
• 1) Piece-wise approximation of physical fields on finite elements provides
good precision even with simple approximating functions (increasing the
number of elements we can achieve any precision).
• 2) Locality of approximation leads to sparse equation systems for a
discretized problem. This helps to solve problems with very large number
of nodal unknowns.
 General Description of FEM
• In engineering problems there are some basic unknowns. If they are found, the
behaviour of the entire structure can be predicted. The basic unknowns or the
Field variables which are encountered in the engineering problems are
displacements in solid mechanics, velocities in fluid mechanics, electric and
magnetic potentials in electrical engineering and temperatures in heat flow
problems.
• In a continuum, these unknowns are infinite. The finite element procedure
reduces such unknowns to a finite number by dividing the solution region into
small parts called elements and by expressing the unknown field variables in
terms of assumed approximating functions (Interpolating functions/Shape
functions) within each element.
• The approximating functions are defined in terms of field variables of specified
points called nodes or nodal points. Thus in the finite element analysis the
unknowns are the field variables of the nodal points. Once these are found the
field variables at any point can be found by using interpolation functions.
• After selecting elements and nodal unknowns next step in finite element
analysis is to assemble element properties for each element. For example,
in solid mechanics, we have to find the force-displacement i.e. stiffness
characteristics of each individual element. Mathematically this relationship
is of the form

• where [k]e is element stiffness matrix, {δ}e is nodal displacement vector of

the element and {F}e is nodal force vector.
• The element of stiffness matrix kij represent the force in coordinate
direction ‘i’ due to a unit displacement in coordinate direction ‘j’.
• Four methods are available for formulating these element properties
• viz. direct approach, variational approach, weighted residual approach and
energy balance approach.
• Any one of these methods can be used for assembling element properties.
• In solid mechanics variational approach is commonly employed to
assemble stiffness matrix and nodal force vector (consistant loads).
 FEM vs Classical Methods
1. In classical methods exact equations are formed and exact solutions are obtained where as in
finite element analysis exact equations are formed but approximate solutions are obtained.
2. Solutions have been obtained for few standard cases by classical methods, where as solutions
can be obtained for all problems by finite element analysis.
3. Whenever the following complexities are faced, classical method makes the drastic
assumptions’ and looks for the solutions:
(a) Shape (b) Boundary conditions (c) Loading Fig. shows such cases in the analysis
of slabs (plates).
To get the solution in the above cases, rectangular shapes, same boundary condition along a side
and regular equivalent loads are to be assumed. In FEM no such assumptions are made. The
problem is treated as it is.
4. When material property is not isotropic, solutions for the problems become very difficult in
classical method. Only few simple cases have been tried successfully by researchers.
FEM can handle structures with anisotropic properties also without any difficulty.
5. If structure consists of more than one material, it is difficult to use classical method, but finite
element can be used without any difficulty.
6. Problems with material and geometric non-linearities can not be handled by classical methods.
There is no difficulty in FEM.
 FEM vs FDM
1. FDM makes point wise approximation to the governing equations i.e. it ensures
continuity only at the node points. Continuity along the sides of grid lines are not ensured.
FEM make piecewise approximation i.e. it ensures the continuity at node points as well as
along the sides of the element.
2. FDM do not give the values at any point except at node points. It do not give any
approximating function to evaluate the basic values (deflections, in case of solid
mechanics) using the nodal values.
FEM can give the values at any point. However the values obtained at points other than
nodes are by using suitable interpolation formulae.
3. FDM makes stair type approximation to sloping and curved boundaries as shown in Fig.
1.5.
FEM can consider the sloping boundaries exactly. If curved elements are used, even the
curved boundaries can be handled exactly.
4. FDM needs larger number of nodes to get good results while FEM needs fewer nodes.
5. With FDM fairly complicated problems can be handled where as FEM can handle all
complicated problems.
 Procedure for fem
• To summarize in general terms how the finite element method works we list main
steps of the finite element solution procedure below.

• 1. Discretize the continuum. The first step is to divide a solution region into finite
elements. The finite element mesh is typically generated by a preprocessor
program. The description of mesh consists of several arrays main of which are
nodal coordinates and element connectivities.
• 2. Select interpolation functions. Interpolation functions are used to interpolate
the field variables over the element. Often, polynomials are selected as
interpolation functions. The degree of the polynomial depends on the number of
nodes assigned to the element.
• 3. Find the element properties. The matrix equation for the finite element should
be established which relates the nodal values of the unknown function to other
parameters. For this task different approaches can be used; the most convenient
are: the variational approach and the Galerkin method.
• 4. Assemble the element equations. To find the global equation system for
the whole solution region we must assemble all the element equations. In
other words we must combine local element equations for all elements used
for discretization. Element connectivities are used for the assembly process.
Before solution, boundary conditions (which are not accounted in element
equations) should be imposed.
• 5. Solve the global equation system. The finite element global equation
sytem is typically sparse, symmetric and positive definite. Direct and
iterative methods can be used for solution. The nodal values of the sought
function are produced as a result of the solution.
• 6. Compute additional results. In many cases we need to calculate
additional parameters. For example, in mechanical problems strains and
stresses are of interest in addition to displacements, which are obtained
after solution of the global equation system.
• Advantages of Finite Element Method
• Modeling of complex geometries and irregular shapes are easier as
varieties of finite elements are available for discretization of domain.
• Boundary conditions can be easily incorporated in FEM.
• Different types of material properties can be easily accommodated in
modeling from element to element or even within an element.
• Higher order elements may be implemented.
• FEM is simple, compact and result-oriented and hence widely popular
among engineering community.
• Availability of large number of computer software packages and
literature makes FEM a versatile and powerful numerical method.
• Disadvantages of Finite Element Method
• Large amount of data is required as input for the mesh used in terms of
nodal connectivity and other parameters depending on the problem.
• It requires a digital computer and fairly extensive
• It requires longer execution time compared with FEM.
• Output result will vary considerably.
 FEM VS FDM
• FDM makes point wise approximation to the governing equations i.e. it ensures
continuity only at the node points. Continuity along the sides of grid lines is not ensured.
• FEM make piecewise approximation i.e. it ensures the continuity at node points as well
as along the sides of the element.
• FDM does not give the values at any point except at node points. It do not give any
approximating function to evaluate the basic values (deflections, in case of solid
mechanics) using the nodal values.
• FEM can give the values at any point. However the values obtained at points other than
nodes are by using suitable interpolation formulae.
• FDM makes stair type approximation to sloping and curved boundaries as shown in Fig.
1.5.
• FEM can consider the sloping boundaries exactly. If curved elements are used, even the
curved boundaries can be handled exactly.
• FDM needs larger number of nodes to get good results while FEM needs fewer nodes.
• With FDM fairly complicated problems can be handled where as FEM can handle all
complicated problems.
 Principle of minimum Potential Energy
• Potential energy is the capacity to do work by the forces
acting on deformable bodies. The forces acting on a body
may be classified as internal forces and external forces.
• Internal forces are the applied loads while external forces
are stresses developed on the body. Hence the potential
energy is the sum of internal and external potential energies.
• The principle of minimum potential energy states that “ for
conservative systems of all the kinematically admissible
displacement fields those correspond to equilibrium
extremize the potential energy. If the extreme condition is
minimum the equilibrium state is stable.
Rayleigh Ritz Method
 Shape Functions
• In the finite element analysis aim is to find the field variables at nodal points by
rigorous analysis, assuming at any point inside the element basic variable is a
function of values at nodal points of the element. This function which relates
the field variable at any point within the element to the field variables of nodal
points is called shape function. This is also called as interpolation function and
approximating function. In two dimensional stress analysis in which basic field
variable is displacement,

• Characteristic of Shape function

• Value of shape function of particular node is one and is zero to all other nodes.
• Sum of all shape function is one.
• Sum of the derivative of all the shape functions for a particular primary variable
is zero.
 Convergence Requirements of Shape
Functions
• Stiffness coefficients for a displacements model have higher
magnitudes compared to those for the exact solutions. In other
words the displacements obtained by finite element analysis are
lesser than the exact values. Thus the FEM gives lower bound
values. Hence it is desirable that as the finite element analysis
mesh is refined, the solution approaches the exact values.
• In order to ensure this convergence criteria, the shape functions
should satisfy the following requirement:
– The displacement models must be continuous within the elements and
the displacements must be compatible between the adjacent elements.
The second part implies that the adjacent elements must deform without
causing openings, overlaps or discontinuities between the elements. This
requirement is called ‘compatibility requirement’ .
• The displacement model should include the rigid body displacements of
the element. It means in displacement model there should be a term
which permit all points on the element to experience the same
displacement. It is obvious, if such term do not exists, shifting of the origin
of the coordinate system will cause additional stresses and strains, which
should not occur. Hence to satisfy the requirement of rigid body
displacement, there should be constant term in the shape function
selected.
• The displacement models must include the constant strain state of the
element. This means, there should exist combination of values of
polynomial terms that cause all points in the element to experience the
same strain. One such combination should occur for each possible strain.
The necessity of this requirement is understood physically, if we imagine
the refinement of the mesh. As these elements approach infinitesimal
size, the strains within the element approach constant values. Unless the
shape function term includes these constant strain terms, we cannot hope
to converge to a correct solution.