Chapter 15:

Characteristics, Applications &

Processing of Polymers
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What are the tensile properties of polymers and how
are they affected by basic microstructural features?
• Hardening, anisotropy, and annealing in polymers.
• How does the elevated temperature mechanical
response of polymers compare to ceramics and metals?
• What are the primary polymer processing methods?

Chapter 15 - 1
 Mechanical Properties
• i.e. stress-strain behavior of polymers
brittle polymer

FS of polymer ca. 10% that of metals

plastic
elastomer
elastic modulus
– less than metal

Adapted from Fig. 15.1,

Strains – deformations > 1000% possible Callister 7e.

(for metals, maximum strain ca. 10% or less)

Chapter 15 - 2
 Tensile Response: Brittle & Plastic
Near Failure (MPa) fibrillar
structure
x brittle failure
near
onset of
failure
necking plastic failure
x
Initial
unload/reload

e
aligned, networked
cross- case crystalline
linked regions
case slide
semi-
crystalline amorphous
crystalline
case regions
regions align
elongate

Chapter 15 -
 Predeformation by Drawing
• Drawing…(ex: monofilament fishline)
-- stretches the polymer prior to use
-- aligns chains in the stretching direction
• Results of drawing:
-- increases the elastic modulus (E) in the
stretching direction
-- increases the tensile strength (TS) in the
stretching direction Adapted from Fig. 15.13, Callister
-- decreases ductility (%EL) 7e. (Fig. 15.13 is from J.M.
Schultz, Polymer Materials
• Annealing after drawing... Science, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1974, pp. 500-501.)
-- decreases alignment
-- reverses effects of drawing.
• Compare to cold working in metals!

Chapter 15 - 4
 Tensile Response: Elastomer Case
(MPa)
x brittle failure Stress-strain curves
adapted from Fig. 15.1,
Callister 7e. Inset
figures along elastomer
curve (green) adapted
from Fig. 15.15, Callister
plastic failure
x 7e. (Fig. 15.15 is from
Z.D. Jastrzebski, The
Nature and Properties of
x Engineering Materials,
elastomer 3rd ed., John Wiley and
Sons, 1987.)
final: chains
e are straight,
still
cross-linked
initial: amorphous chains are Deformation
kinked, cross-linked. is reversible!

• Compare to responses of other polymers:

-- brittle response (aligned, crosslinked & networked polymer)
-- plastic response (semi-crystalline polymers)
Chapter 15 - 5
 Thermoplastics vs. Thermosets
T
• Thermoplastics: Callister,
-- little crosslinking viscous rubber
Fig. 16.9
mobile liquid Tm
-- ductile tough
liquid
-- soften w/heating plastic
-- polyethylene Tg
polypropylene
partially
polycarbonate crystalline
polystyrene crystalline
solid
solid

• Thermosets: Molecular weight

Adapted from Fig. 15.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 15.19 is from F.W. Billmeyer,
-- large crosslinking Jr., Textbook of Polymer Science, 3rd ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1984.)
(10 to 50% of mers)
-- hard and brittle
-- do NOT soften w/heating
-- vulcanized rubber, epoxies,
polyester resin, phenolic resin
Chapter 15 - 6
 T and Strain Rate: Thermoplastics

• Decreasing T...
(MPa)
-- increases E 80 4°C Data for the
-- increases TS semicrystalline
-- decreases %EL 60 polymer: PMMA
20°C (Plexiglas)
• Increasing 40 40°C
strain rate...
-- same effects 20
as decreasing T. to 1.3
60°C
0
0 0.1 0.2 e 0.3
Adapted from Fig. 15.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 15.3 is from T.S. Carswell and
J.K. Nason, 'Effect of Environmental Conditions on the Mechanical
Properties of Organic Plastics", Symposium on Plastics, American Society
for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA, 1944.)

Chapter 15 - 7
 Melting vs. Glass Transition Temp.
What factors affect Tm and Tg?
• Both Tm and Tg increase with
increasing chain stiffness
• Chain stiffness increased by
1. Bulky sidegroups
2. Polar groups or sidegroups
3. Double bonds or aromatic
chain groups

• Regularity – effects Tm only

Adapted from Fig. 15.18,

Callister 7e.
Chapter 15 - 8
 Time Dependent Deformation
• Stress relaxation test: • Data: Large drop in Er
-- strain to eo and hold. for T > Tg. (amorphous
5
-- observe decrease in 10 rigid solid polystyrene)
Er (10s) 3 (small relax) Adapted from Fig.
stress with time. in MPa 10
15.7, Callister 7e.
transition (Fig. 15.7 is from
1
tensile test 10 region A.V. Tobolsky,
Properties and
eo strain 10-1
Structures of
Polymers, John
viscous liquid Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
(t) 10-3 (large relax) 1960.)

60 100 140 180 T(°C)

time Tg
• Relaxation modulus: • Sample Tg(C) values:
(t ) PE (low density) - 110
E r (t )  PE (high density) - 90
eo PVC + 87
Selected values from
Table 15.2, Callister
PS +100 7e.

PC +150
Chapter 15 - 9
 Polymer Fracture
Crazing  Griffith cracks in metals
– spherulites plastically deform to fibrillar structure
– microvoids and fibrillar bridges form

alligned chains

microvoids Adapted from Fig. 15.9,

fibrillar bridges crack Callister 7e.

Chapter 15 - 10
 Addition (Chain) Polymerization

– Initiation

– Propagation

– Termination

Chapter 15 - 11
Condensation (Step)
Polymerization

Chapter 15 - 12
 Polymer Additives
Improve mechanical properties, processability,
durability, etc.
• Fillers
– Added to improve tensile strength & abrasion
resistance, toughness & decrease cost
– ex: carbon black, silica gel, wood flour, glass,
limestone, talc, etc.
• Plasticizers
– Added to reduce the glass transition
temperature Tg
– commonly added to PVC - otherwise it is brittle

Chapter 15 - 13
 Polymer Additives
• Stabilizers
– Antioxidants
– UV protectants
• Lubricants
– Added to allow easier processing
– “slides” through dies easier – ex: Na stearate
• Colorants
– Dyes or pigments
• Flame Retardants
– Cl/F & B

Chapter 15 - 14
 Processing of Plastics
• Thermoplastic –
– can be reversibly cooled & reheated, i.e. recycled
– heat till soft, shape as desired, then cool
– ex: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, etc.
• Thermoset
– when heated forms a network
– degrades (not melts) when heated
– mold the prepolymer then allow further reaction
– ex: urethane, epoxy

Chapter 15 - 15
 Processing Plastics - Molding
• Compression and transfer molding
– thermoplastic or thermoset

Adapted from Fig. 15.23,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 15.23 is from
F.W. Billmeyer, Jr., Textbook of
Polymer Science, 3rd ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, 1984. )
Chapter 15 - 16
 Processing Plastics - Molding
• Injection molding
– thermoplastic & some thermosets
Adapted from Fig. 15.24,
Callister 7e. (Fig. 15.24 is from
F.W. Billmeyer, Jr., Textbook of
Polymer Science, 2nd edition,
John Wiley & Sons, 1971. )

Chapter 15 - 17
Processing Plastics – Extrusion

Adapted from Fig. 15.25,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 15.25 is from
Encyclopædia Britannica, 1997.)

Chapter 15 - 18
 Polymer Types: Elastomers
Elastomers – rubber
• Crosslinked materials
– Natural rubber
– Synthetic rubber and thermoplastic elastomers
• SBR- styrene-butadiene rubber
styrene

butadiene

– Silicone rubber

Chapter 15 - 19
 Polymer Types: Fibers
Fibers - length/diameter >100
• Textiles are main use
– Must have high tensile strength
– Usually highly crystalline & highly polar
• Formed by spinning
– ex: extrude polymer through a spinnerette
• Pt plate with 1000’s of holes for nylon
• ex: rayon – dissolved in solvent then pumped through
die head to make fibers
– the fibers are drawn
– leads to highly aligned chains- fibrillar structure

Chapter 15 - 20
 Polymer Types
• Coatings – thin film on surface – i.e. paint, varnish
– To protect item
– Improve appearance
– Electrical insulation
• Adhesives – produce bond between two adherands
– Usually bonded by:
1. Secondary bonds
2. Mechanical bonding
• Films – blown film extrusion
• Foams – gas bubbles in plastic

Chapter 15 - 21
Blown-Film Extrusion

Adapted from Fig. 15.26, Callister 7e.

(Fig. 15.26 is from Encyclopædia
Britannica, 1997.)

Chapter 15 - 22
 Advanced Polymers
• Ultrahigh molecular weight
polyethylene (UHMWPE)
– Molecular weight
ca. 4 x 106 g/mol
– Excellent properties for UHMWPE
variety of applications
• bullet-proof vest, golf ball
covers, hip joints, etc.
Adapted from chapter-
opening photograph,
Chapter 22, Callister 7e.

Chapter 15 - 23
 Summary
• General drawbacks to polymers:
-- E, y, Kc, Tapplication are generally small.
-- Deformation is often T and time dependent.
-- Result: polymers benefit from composite reinforcement.
• Thermoplastics (PE, PS, PP, PC):
-- Smaller E, y, Tapplication
-- Larger Kc Table 15.3 Callister 7e:
-- Easier to form and recycle
• Elastomers (rubber): Good overview
-- Large reversible strains! of applications
and trade names
• Thermosets (epoxies, polyesters): of polymers.
-- Larger E, y, Tapplication
-- Smaller Kc

Chapter 15 - 24
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 15 - 25