Metabolism & Enzymes

AP Biology 2007-2008
 From food webs to the life of a cell

energy

energy

energy

AP Biology
 Flow of energy through life
 Life is built on chemical reactions
 transforming energy from one form to
organic molecules → ATP
another & organic molecules

sun organic molecules →

ATP & organic molecules

solar energy →
AP Biology
ATP & organic molecules
 Metabolism
 Chemical reactions of life
 forming bonds between molecules
 dehydration synthesis
 synthesis
 anabolic reactions
 breaking bonds between molecules
 hydrolysis
 digestion
 catabolic reactions
That’s why
they’re called
AP Biology anabolic steroids!
 Examples
 dehydration synthesis (synthesis)
enzyme
+

H2O

 hydrolysis (digestion)

+
enzyme

H2O
AP Biology
 Examples
 dehydration synthesis (synthesis)

enzyme

 hydrolysis (digestion)

enzyme

AP Biology
 Chemical reactions & energy
 Some chemical reactions release energy
 exergonic digesting molecules=
LESS organization=
 digesting polymers lower energy state

 hydrolysis = catabolism

 Some chemical reactions require

input of energy
building molecules=
 endergonic MORE organization=
 building polymers higher energy state

 dehydration synthesis = anabolism

AP Biology
 Endergonic vs. exergonic reactions
exergonic endergonic
- energy released - energy invested
- digestion - synthesis

+∆ G

-∆ G

AP Biology ∆ G = change in free energy = ability to do work

 Energy & life
 Organisms require energy to live
 where does that energy come from?
 coupling exergonic reactions (releasing energy)
with endergonic reactions (needing energy)

+ + energy
digestio
n

synthesi
s
+ + energy
AP Biology
 What drives reactions?
 If reactions are “downhill”, why don’t they
just happen spontaneously?
 because covalent bonds are stable bonds
Why don’t
starc stable polymers
h spontaneously
digest into their
monomers?

AP Biology
 Activation energy
 Breaking down large molecules
requires an initial input of energy
 activation energy
 large biomolecules are stable

 must absorb energy to break bonds

cellulose energy CO2 + H2O + heat

AP Biology
 Too much activation energy for life
 Activation energy
 amount of energy needed to destabilize
the bonds of a molecule
 moves the reaction over an “energy hill”

glucos
Not a match!
e That’s too much
energy to expose
living cells to!

AP Biology
 Reducing Activation energy
 Catalysts
 reducing the amount of energy to
start a reaction
uncatalyzed Pheeew…
reaction that takes a lot
less energy!

catalyzed
reaction
NEW activation
energy
reactan
t

produc
AP Biology t
 Catalysts
 So what’s a cell got to do to reduce
activation energy?
 get help! … chemical help… ENZYMES

Call in the
ENZYMES!

∆ G

AP Biology
 Enzymes
 Biological catalysts
 proteins (& RNA)
 facilitate chemical reactions
 increase rate of reaction without being consumed
 reduce activation energy
 don’t change free energy (∆ G) released or required
 required for most biological reactions
 highly specific
 thousands of different enzymes in cells
 control reactions
of life

AP Biology
 Enzymes vocabulary
substrate
 reactant which binds to enzyme
 enzyme-substrate complex: temporary association
product
 end result of reaction
active site
 enzyme’s catalytic site; substrate fits into active site

active
substrat product
site
e s

enzym
AP Biology
e
 Properties of enzymes
 Reaction specific
 each enzyme works with a specific substrate
 chemical fit between active site & substrate
 H bonds & ionic bonds
 Not consumed in reaction
 single enzyme molecule can catalyze
thousands or more reactions per second
 enzymes unaffected by the reaction
 Affected by cellular conditions
 any condition that affects protein structure
 temperature, pH, salinity
AP Biology
 Naming conventions
 Enzymes named for reaction they catalyze
 sucrase breaks down sucrose
 proteases break down proteins
 lipases break
down lipids
 DNA polymerase builds DNA
 adds nucleotides
to DNA strand
 pepsin breaks down
proteins (polypeptides)

AP Biology
 Lock and Key model
 Simplistic model of In biology…
enzyme action Size
doesn’t matter…
 substrate fits into 3-D Shape matters!
structure of enzyme’
active site
 H bonds between
substrate & enzyme
 like “key fits into lock”

AP Biology
 Induced fit model
 More accurate model of enzyme action
 3-D structure of enzyme fits substrate
 substrate binding cause enzyme to

change shape leading to a tighter fit

 “conformational change”
 bring chemical groups in position to catalyze
reaction

AP Biology
 How does it work?
 Variety of mechanisms to lower
activation energy & speed up reaction
 synthesis
 active site orients substrates in correct
position for reaction
 enzyme brings substrate closer together
 digestion
 active site binds substrate & puts stress on
bonds that must be broken, making it easier
to separate molecules

AP Biology
 Got any Questions?!

AP Biology 2007-2008
 Factors that Affect Enzymes

AP Biology 2007-2008
 Factors Affecting Enzyme Function
 Enzyme concentration
 Substrate concentration
 Temperature
 pH
 Salinity
 Activators
 Inhibitors

AP Biology
catalase
 Enzyme concentration
What’s
happening here?!
reaction rate

enzyme concentration
AP Biology
 Factors affecting enzyme function
 Enzyme concentration
 as ↑ enzyme = ↑ reaction rate
 more enzymes = more frequently collide with
substrate
 reaction rate levels off
 substrate becomes limiting factor
 not all enzyme molecules can find substrate
reaction rate

AP Biology
enzyme concentration
 Substrate concentration
What’s
happening here?!
reaction rate

substrate concentration
AP Biology
 Factors affecting enzyme function
 Substrate concentration
 as ↑ substrate = ↑ reaction rate
 more substrate = more frequently collide with
enzyme
 reaction rate levels off
 all enzymes have active site engaged
 enzyme is saturated
 maximum rate of reaction
reaction rate

AP Biology
substrate concentration
 Temperature
What’s
happening here?!
reaction rate

37°
temperature

AP Biology
 Factors affecting enzyme function
 Temperature
 Optimum T°
 greatest number of molecular collisions
 human enzymes = 35°- 40°C
 body temp = 37°C
 Heat: increase beyond optimum T°
 increased energy level of molecules disrupts
bonds in enzyme & between enzyme & substrate
 H, ionic = weak bonds
 denaturation = lose 3D shape (3° structure)
 Cold: decrease T°
 molecules move slower
 decrease collisions between enzyme & substrate
AP Biology
 Enzymes and temperature
 Different enzymes function in different
organisms in different environments
hot spring
human enzyme bacteria enzyme
reaction rate

37°C 70°C
AP Biology temperature (158°F)
 How do ectotherms do it?

AP Biology
 pH
What’s
happening here?!

pepsin trypsin
reaction rate

pepsin

trypsin

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
AP Biology pH
 Factors affecting enzyme function
 pH
 changes in pH
 adds or remove H+
 disrupts bonds, disrupts 3D shape
 disrupts attractions between charged amino acids
 affect 2° & 3° structure
 denatures protein
 optimal pH?
 most human enzymes = pH 6-8
 depends on localized conditions
 pepsin (stomach) = pH 2-3
 trypsin (small intestines) = pH 8

AP Biology 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
 Salinity
What’s
happening here?!
reaction rate

salt concentration

AP Biology
 Factors affecting enzyme function
 Salt concentration
 changes in salinity
 adds or removes cations (+) & anions (–)
 disrupts bonds, disrupts 3D shape
 disrupts attractions between charged amino acids
 affect 2° & 3° structure
 denatures protein
 enzymes intolerant of extreme salinity
 Dead Sea is called dead for a reason!

AP Biology
 Compounds which help enzymes
Fe in
 Activators hemoglobi
n
 cofactors
 non-protein, small inorganic
compounds & ions
 Mg, K, Ca, Zn, Fe, Cu
 bound within enzyme molecule
 coenzymes
 non-protein, organic molecules
 bind temporarily or permanently to
enzyme near active site
 many vitamins Mg in
chlorophyl
 NAD (niacin; B3) l
 FAD (riboflavin; B2)
AP Biology  Coenzyme A
 Compounds which regulate enzymes
 Inhibitors
 molecules that reduce enzyme activity
 competitive inhibition

 noncompetitive inhibition

 irreversible inhibition

 feedback inhibition

AP Biology
 Competitive Inhibitor
 Inhibitor & substrate “compete” for active site
 penicillin
blocks enzyme bacteria use to build cell walls
 disulfiram (Antabuse)
treats chronic alcoholism
 blocks enzyme that
breaks down alcohol
 severe hangover & vomiting
5-10 minutes after drinking
 Overcome by increasing substrate
concentration
 saturate solution with substrate
so it out-competes inhibitor
for active site on enzyme
AP Biology
 Non-Competitive Inhibitor
 Inhibitor binds to site other than active site
 allosteric inhibitor binds to allosteric site
 causes enzyme to change shape
 conformational change
 active site is no longer functional binding site
 keeps enzyme inactive
 some anti-cancer drugs
inhibit enzymes involved in DNA synthesis
 stop DNA production
 stop division of more cancer cells
 cyanide poisoning
irreversible inhibitor of Cytochrome C,
an enzyme in cellular respiration
 stops production of ATP
AP Biology
 Irreversible inhibition
 Inhibitor permanently binds to enzyme
 competitor
 permanently binds to active site
 allosteric
 permanently binds to allosteric site
 permanently changes shape of enzyme
 nerve gas, sarin, many insecticides
(malathion, parathion…)
 cholinesterase inhibitors
 doesn’t breakdown the neurotransmitter,
acetylcholine

AP Biology
 Allosteric regulation
 Conformational changes by regulatory
molecules
 inhibitors
 keeps enzyme in inactive form
 activators
 keeps enzyme in active form

AP Biology Conformational changes Allosteric regulation

 Metabolic pathways

AA →
→→BB →
→ C → D → EE →
→FF →
→GG

→
→

→
→
enzyme enzyme enzyme enzyme enzyme enzyme
enzyme
1 2 3 4 5 6

 Chemical reactions of life

are organized in pathways
 divide chemical reaction into
many small steps
 artifact of evolution
 ↑ efficiency
 intermediate branching points
AP Biology
 ↑ control = regulation
 Efficiency
 Organized groups of enzymes
 enzymes are embedded in membrane
and arranged sequentially
 Link endergonic & exergonic reactions
Whoa!
All that going on
in those little
mitochondria!

AP Biology
 Feedback Inhibition
 Regulation & coordination of production
 product is used by next step in pathway
 final product is inhibitor of earlier step
 allosteric inhibitor of earlier enzyme
 feedback inhibition
 no unnecessary accumulation of product

A →B →C →D →E →F →G
→
→

→
X
enzyme enzyme enzyme enzyme enzyme enzyme
2 3 4 5 6
1

AP Biology allosteric inhibitor of enzyme 1

 threonine
Feedback inhibition
 Example
 synthesis of amino
acid, isoleucine from
amino acid, threonine
 isoleucine becomes

the allosteric inhibitor

of the first step in the
pathway
 as product
accumulates it
collides with enzyme
more often than
substrate does
AP Biology
isoleucine
 Feedback Summary

AP Biology
 Don’t be inhibited!
Ask Questions!

AP Biology 2007-2008
 Ghosts of Lectures Past
(storage)

AP Biology 2007-2008
 Cooperativity
 Substrate acts as an activator
 substrate causes conformational
change in enzyme
 induced fit
 favors binding of substrate at 2nd site
 makes enzyme more active & effective
 hemoglobin
Hemoglobin
 4 polypeptide chains
 can bind 4 O2;
 1st O2 binds
 now easier for other
AP3Biology
O2 to bind