 Measurement

◦ A method to obtain information regarding the

physical values of the variable.

 Instrumentation
◦ Devices used in measurement system

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 Physical quantity: variable such as pressure,
temperature, mass, length, etc.
 Data: Information obtained from the
instrumentation/measurement system as a result
of the measurements made of the physical
quantities
 Information: Data that has a calibrated numeric
relationship to the physical quantity.
 Parameter: Physical quantity within defined
(numeric) limits.

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measurand Sensor, signal conditioning, display Man, tracking control etc

8
 Terminology
 Measurand: Physical quantity being measured.
 Calibration: Implies that there is a numeric
relationship throughout the whole instrumentation
system and that it is directly related to an approved
national or international standard.
 Test instrumentation: It is a branch of
instrumentation and most closely associated with
the task of gathering data during various
development phases encountered in engineering,
e.g. flight test instrumentation for testing and
approving aircraft.

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 Transducer: A device that converts one form of
energy to another.
 Electronic transducer: It has an input or output that
is electrical in nature (e.g., voltage, current or
resistance).
 Sensor: Electronic transducer that converts physical
quantity into an electrical signal.
 Actuator: Electronic transducer that converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy.

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 In the case of process industries and
industrial manufacturing…
◦ To improve the quality of the product
◦ To improve the efficiency of production
◦ To maintain the proper operation.

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 To acquire data or information (hence data
acquisition) about parameters, in terms of:
◦ putting the numerical values to the physical
quantities
◦ making measurements otherwise inaccessible.
◦ producing data agreeable to analysis (mostly in
electrical form)

 Data Acquisition Software (DAS) – data is

acquired by the instrumentation system.

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 Definition of measurement and instrumentation
 Types of measurements
 Types of instruments in measurements
 Review in units of measurement
 Standard of measurement
 Calibration
 Application of measurement and instrumentation

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 Direct comparison
◦ Easy to do but… less accurate
 e.g. to measure a steel bar
 Indirect comparison
◦ Calibrated system; consists of several devices to
convert, process (amplification or filtering) and
display the output

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 General Structure of Measuring System

 Stage 1: A detection-transducer stage;

 Stage 2: A signal conditioning stage;
 Stage 3: A terminating or readout-recording stage;

15
 An analogue instrument gives an output
that varies continuously as the quantity
being measured; e.g. Deflection-type of
pressure gauge

22
 A digital instrument has an output that
varies in discrete steps and only have a
finite number of values; e.g. Revolution
counter

23
 Calibration consists of comparing the output of the
instrument or sensor under test against the output of
an instrument of known accuracy (higher accuracy)
when the same input (the measured quantity is applied
to both instrument)
The procedure is carried out for a range of inputs covering
the whole measurement range of the instrument or sensor
Ensures that the measuring accuracy of all instruments and
sensors used in a measurement system is known over the
whole measurement range, provided that the calibrated
instruments and sensors are used in environmental conditions
that are the same as those under which they were calibrated

33
 The method and apparatus for performing
measurement instrumentation calibrations vary
widely.
 A rule that should be followed is that the
calibration standard should be at least 10 times as
accurate as the instrument being calibrated.
 By holding some inputs constant, varying others
and recording the output(s) develop the desired
static input-output relations. Many trial and runs
are needed.

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 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

• Performance Characteristics - characteristics that show the

performance of an instrument.

• Eg: accuracy, precision, resolution, sensitivity.

• Allows users to select the most suitable instrument for a specific

measuring jobs.

• Two basic characteristics :

• Static – measuring a constant process condition.

• Dynamic - measuring a varying process condition.

 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

• Accuracy – the degree of exactness (closeness) of measurement

compared to the expected (desired) value.
• Resolution – the smallest change in a measurement variable to
which an instrument will respond.
• Precision – a measure of consistency or repeatability of
measurement, i.e successive reading do not differ.
• Sensitivity – ratio of change in the output (response) of
instrument to a change of input or measured variable.
• Expected value – the design value or the most probable value
that expect to obtain.
• Error – the deviation of the true value from the desired value.
 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT
• Measurement always introduce error
• Error may be expressed either as absolute or percentage of error

Absolute error, e = Yn  X n
where Yn– expected value
X n – measured value

% error = Yn  X n
100
Yn
 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

Yn  X n
Relative accuracy, A  1
Yn
% Accuracy, a = 100% - % error
= A 100

Xn  Xn
Precision, P = 1
Xn

where X n- value of the nth measurement

X - average set of measurement
n
PRECISION

• The precision of a measurement is a quantitative or numerical

indication of the closeness with which a repeated set of
measurement of the same variable agree with the average set of
measurements.
 Example

Given expected voltage value across a resistor is 80V.

The measurement is 79V. Calculate,

i. The absolute error

ii. The % of error

iii. The relative accuracy

iv. The % of accuracy

 Solution (Example 1.1)

Given that , expected value = 80V

measurement value = 79V

i. Absolute error, e = Yn  X n = 80V – 79V = 1V

80  79
Y  Xn =  100
ii. % error = n 100 80 = 1.25%
Yn
Yn  X n
iii. Relative accuracy, A  1 = 0.9875
Yn

iv. % accuracy, a = A x 100% = 0.9875 x 100%=98.75%

 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR

• Types of static error

1) Gross error/human error

2) Systematic Error
3) Random Error
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR
1) Gross Error
 cause by human mistakes in reading/using instruments
may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of the
instrument and the computational mistakes
cannot be treated mathematically
 cannot eliminate but can minimize
Eg: Improper use of an instrument.
This error can be minimized by taking proper care in
reading and recording measurement parameter.
In general, indicating instruments change ambient
conditions to some extent when connected into a complete
circuit.
Therefore, several readings (at three readings) must be
taken to minimize the effect of ambient condition changes.
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)
2) Systematic Error
- due to shortcomings of the instrument (such as
defective or worn parts, ageing or effects of the
environment on the instrument)
• In general, systematic errors can be subdivided into static and
dynamic errors.
• Static – caused by limitations of the measuring device or
the physical laws governing its behavior.
• Dynamic – caused by the instrument not responding very
fast enough to follow the changes in a measured variable.
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)

3 types of systematic error :-

(i) Instrumental error
(ii) Environmental error
(iii) Observational error
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)

(i) Instrumental error

Inherent while measuring instrument because of
their mechanical structure (eg: in a D’Arsonval meter,
friction in the bearings of various moving component,
irregular spring tension, stretching of spring, etc)
Error can be avoid by:
(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular
measurement application
(b) apply correction factor by determining
instrumental error
(c) calibrate the instrument against standard
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)
(ii) Environmental error
- due to external condition effecting the
measurement including surrounding area condition
such as change in temperature, humidity,
barometer pressure, etc
- to avoid the error :-
(a) use air conditioner
(b) sealing certain component in the instruments
(c) use magnetic shields

(iii) Observational error

- introduce by the observer
- most common : parallax error and estimation error
(while reading the scale)
- Eg: an observer who tend to hold his head too far to the
left while reading the position of the needle on the scale.
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR (cont)
3) Random error
- due to unknown causes, occur when all systematic
error has accounted
- accumulation of small effect, require at high degree of
accuracy
- can be avoid by
(a) increasing number of reading
(b) use statistical means to obtain best approximation
of true value
 Dynamic Characteristics
• Dynamic – measuring a varying process condition.

• Instruments rarely respond instantaneously to changes in the measured

variables due to such things as mass, thermal capacitance, fluid
capacitance or electrical capacitance.

• Pure delay in time is often encountered where the instrument waits for
some reaction to take place.

• Such industrial instruments are nearly always used for measuring

quantities that fluctuate with time.

• Therefore, the dynamic and transient behavior of the instrument is

important.
Dynamic Characteristics

• The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by subjecting its primary

element (sensing element) to some unknown and predetermined variations in the
measured quantity.

• The three most common variations in the measured quantity:

• Step change

• Linear change

• Sinusoidal change
Dynamic Characteristics

• Step change-in which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous and

finite change in measured variable.

• Linear change-in which the primary element is following the measured variable,
changing linearly with time.

• Sinusoidal change-in which the primary element follows a measured variable, the
magnitude of which changes in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant
amplitude.
Dynamic Characteristics
• The dynamic performance characteristics of an instrument
are: Speed of response- The rapidity with which an
instrument responds changes in measured quantity.

• Dynamic error-The difference between the true and

measured value with no static error.

• Lag – delay in the response of an instrument to changes

in the measured variable.

• Fidelity – the degree to which an instrument indicates

the changes in the measured variable without dynamic
error (faithful reproduction).
 INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE

• Selection, care and use of the instrument :-

 Before using an instrument, students should be thoroughly
familiar with its operation ** read the manual carefully
 Select an instrument to provide the degree of accuracy
required (accuracy + resolution + cost)
 Before used any selected instrument, do the inspection for
any physical problem
 Before connecting the instrument to the circuit, make
sure the ‘function switch’ and the ‘range selector switch’
has been set-up at the proper function or range
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE

Analog Multimeter
INSTRUMENT APPLICATION GUIDE

Digital Multimeter
www.getmyuni.com

Extension of Range
Shunts are used for the extension of range of
Ammeters. So a good shunt should have the
following properties:-
1- The temperature coefficient of shunt should
be low
2- Resistance of shunt should not vary with
time
3- They should carry current without excessive temperature rise
4- They should have thermal electromotive force with copper
* ‘Manganin’ is used for DC shunt and ‘Constantan’ as AC shunt.

Ammeter:- PMMC is used as indicating device. The current capacity of PMMC is small.
It is impractical to construct a PMMC coil, which can carry a current greater than 100
mA. Therefore a shunt is required for measurement of large currents.

Rm = Internal resistance of movement (coil) in Ω

Rsh = Resistance of shunt in Ω
Im = Ifs = Full scale deflection current of movement in Amperes
Ish = Shunt current in Amperes
I = Current to be measured in Amperes
Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage drop
across shunt and movement must be same.
I sh Rsh = I m Rm
I R
R sh = m m
I sh
I sh = I − I m
I R
∴ We can write Rsh = m m
(I − Im )
I R
−1 = m
Im Rsh
I R
= 1+ m
Im Rsh
I
= m is known as ‘multiplying power’
Im
of shunt
R
Resistance of shunt Rsh = m
(m − 1)
Or R sh = Rm
 I 
 − 1
 Im 

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Multi Range Ammeter:- Let m1, m2, m3, m4 be the shunt multiplying powers for current
I1, I2, I3, I4.
R
R sh 1 = m
(m 1 − 1)
R
R sh 2 = m
(m 2 − 1)
R
R sh 3 = m
(m 3 − 1)
R
R sh 4 = m
(m 4 − 1)

Voltmeter:-
For measurement of voltage a series resistor or a multiplier is required for
extension of range.
Im = Deflection current of movement
Rm = Internal resistance of movement
Rs = Multiplier resistance
V = Full range voltage of instrument
V = I m (R s + Rm )
V − I m Rm V
Rs = = − Rm
Im Im
* For more than 500 V multiplier is mounted outside the case.

Multi Range Voltmeter:

V
Rs1 = 1 − Rm
Im
V
R s 2 = 2 − Rm
Im
V
R s 3 = 3 − Rm
Im
V
R s 4 = 4 − Rm
Im

* For average value divide the reading by 1.11. For peak value multiply the voltage by 1.414. To get
peak-to-peak ratio multiply the reading by 2.828.
** Thermocouple and hot wire instruments are used for measurement of true power and rms value of
voltage & current.

Voltmeter & Ammeter by Moving Coil Instrument:- Same process as applied in

PMMC.

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Electrodynamic type Voltmeter & Ammeter:- Shunt is connected across the circuit for
ammeter and multiplier resistance is connected in series for voltmeter.

Numerical
Extension of Range
Example 1:- A moving coil ammeter has a full scale deflection of 50 µ Amp and a
coil resistance of 1000 Ω. What will be the value of the shunt resistance required for
the instrument to be converted to read a full scale reading of 1 Amp.

Solution 1:- Full scale deflection current I m = 50 * 10 −6 A

Instrument resistance Rm = 1000 Ω
Total current to be measured I = 1 A
Rm 1000
Resistance of ammeter shunt required Rsh = =
I 1
−1 −1
Im 50 * 10 − 6

Example 2:- The full scale deflection current of an ammeter is 1 mA and its internal
resistance is 100 Ω. If this meter is to have scale deflection at 5 A, what is the value
of shunt resistance to be used.

Solution 2:- Full scale deflection current I m = 1 mA = 0.001 A

Instrument resistance Rm = 100 Ω .
Total current to be measured I =5 A
Rm 100
Resistance of ammeter shunt required Rsh = =
I 5
−1 −1
Im 0.01
Rsh = 0.020004 Ω

Example 3:- The full scale deflection current of a meter is 1 mA and its internal
resistance is 100 Ω. If this meter is to have full-scale deflection when 100 V is
measured. What should be the value of series resistance?

Solution 3:- Instrument resistance Rm = 100 Ω

Full-scale deflection current I m = 1 mA = 1 * 10 −3 A
Voltage to be measured V = 100 V
V 100
Required series resistance R se = − Rm = − 100 = 99,900 Ω
Im 1 * 10 −3

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Example 4:- A PMMC instrument gives full scale reading of 25 mA when a potential
difference across its terminals is 75 mV. Show how it can be used (a) as an ammeter
for the range of 0-100 A (b) as a voltmeter for the range of 0-750 V. Also find the
multiplying factor of shunt and voltage amplification.

Solution 4:-
Potential drop across ter min als 75 * 10 −3
Instrument resistance Rm = = = 3Ω
Instrument current 25 * 10 −3
(a) Current to be measured I = 100 A
I 100
Multiplying power of shunt m = = = 4000
I m 25 * 10 −3
Shunt resistance required for full scale deflection at 100 A
R 3 3
Rsh = m = = = 7.50 * 10 − 4 = 0.75 mΩ
m − 1 4000 − 1 3999
(b) Voltage to be measured V = 750 V
V 750
Rse = − Rm = − 3 = 29,997 Ω
Im 25 * 10 − 3
750
Voltage amplification = = 10000 Ans.
75 * 10 −3

Example 5:- A moving coil instrument gives full scale deflection of 10 mA and
potential difference across its terminals is 100 mV. Calculate (a) shunt resistance for
full-scale deflection corresponding to 200 A (b) Series resistance for full reading
corresponding to 1000 V.

Solution 5:-
Potential drop across ter min als 100 * 10 −3
Instrument resistance Rm = = = 10 Ω
Instrument current 10 * 10 −3
(a) Shunt resistance required for full scale deflection corresponding to 200 A
Rm 10
Rsh = = = 5.00025 * 10 − 4 Ω
I 200
−1 −1
Im 10 * 10 − 3
(b) Series resistance required for full scale deflection corresponding to 1000 V
V 1000
Rse = − Rm = − 10 = 99,990 Ω
Im 10 * 10− 3

Example 6:- A moving coil instrument having internal resistance of 50 Ω indicates

full scale deflection with a current of 10 mA. How can it be made to work as (i) a
voltmeter to read 100 V on full scale (ii) an ammeter of 1 A, on full scale?

Solution 6:- Resistance of the instrument coil Rm = 50 Ω

Current flowing through the instrument for full-scale deflection I m = 10 mA = 0.01 A

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(i) Series resistance required to measure 100 V

V 100
Rse = − Rm = − 50 = 9950 Ω
Im 0.01
(ii) Shunt required to measure 1 A current
Rm 50
Rsh = = = 0.50505 Ω
I 1
−1 −1
Im 0.01

Example 7:- A moving coil instrument has a resistance of 2

Ω and it reads upto 250 V when a resistance of 5000 Ω is
connected in series with it. Find the current range of the
instrument when it is used as ammeter with the coil
connected across a shunt resistance of 2 milli Ω.

Solution 7:- Resistance of the instrument coil Rm = 2 Ω

Current flowing through the instrument for full-scale deflection
Full scale reading
Im =
Rm + Series resis tan ce
250
= = 0.04998 A = 49.98 mA
2 + 5000
Shunt resistance Rsh = 2 * 10 −3 Ω
I m Rm 49.98 * 10 −3 * 2
Current through shunt resistance I sh = = = 49.98 A
Rs 2 * 10 − 3
Current range of instrument = Full scale deflection current
= I m + I = 0.04998 + 49.98 = 50 A

Example 8:- A moving coil ammeter gives full scale deflection with 15 mA and has a
resistance of 5 Ω. Calculate the resistance to be calculated in (a) Parallel to enable
the instrument to read upto 1 A (b) Series to enable it to read up to 10 V. [UPTU
2002]

Solution 8:- Instrument resistance Rm = 5 Ω

Full scale deflection current I m = 15 mA = 15 * 10 −3 A
(a) Current to be measured I = 1 A
Shunt resistance to be connected in parallel
Rm 5
Rsh = = = 0.07614 Ω
I 1
−1 −1
Im 15 * 10− 3
(b) Voltage to be measured V = 10 V
Series resistance required

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V 10
Rse = − Rm = − 5 = 661.6667 Ω
Im 15 * 10 − 3

Instrument Transformers Basics

Why instrument transformers?

In power systems, currents and voltages handled are very large.

Direct measurements are not possible with the existing equipments.

Hence it is required to step down currents and voltages with the help of
instrument
transformers so that they can be measured with instruments of moderate sizes

Instrument Transformers

 Transformers used in conjunction with measuring instruments for measurement

purposes are called “Instrument Transformers”.

 The instrument used for the measurement of current is called a “Current

Transformer” or simply “CT”.

 The transformers used for the measurement of voltage are called “Voltage
transformer” or “Potential transformer” or simply “PT”.

Instrument Transformers:

Fig 1. Current Transformer Fig 2. Potential Transformer

Fig 1. indicates the current measurement by a C.T. The current being measured
passes through the primary winding and the secondary winding is connected to an
ammeter. The C.T. steps down the current to the level of ammeter.

Fig 2. shows the connection of P.T. for voltage measurement. The primary winding is
connected to the voltage being measured and the secondary winding to a voltmeter. The
P.T. steps down the voltage to the level of voltmeter.

Merits of Instrument Transformers:

1. Instruments of moderate size are used for metering i.e. 5A for current and 100 to
120 volts for voltage measurements.

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2. Instrument and meters can be standardized so that there is saving in costs.

Replacement of damaged instruments is easy.

3. Single range instruments can be used to cover large current or voltage ranges,
when used with suitable multi range instrument transformers.

4. The metering circuit is isolated from the high voltage power circuits. Hence
isolation is not a problem and the safety is assured for the operators

5. There is low power consumption in metering circuit.

6. Several instruments can be operated from a single instrument transformer.

Ratios of Instrument Transformer:

Some definitions are:

1. Transformation ratio: It is the ratio of the magnitude if the primary phasor to
secondary phasor.

Transformation ratio:

for a C.T.

for a P.T.

Nominal Ratio: It is the ratio of rated primary winding current (voltage) to the rated
secondary winding current (voltage).

for a C.T.

for a P.T.
Turns ratio: This is defined as below.

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 STATIC & DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided into two

categories:

i) Static characteristics

ii) Dynamic characteristics

Static characteristics:

The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the
quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary
with time, is called ‘static characteristics’.

The various static characteristics are:

i) Accuracy

ii) Precision

iii) Sensitivity

iv) Linearity

v) Reproducibility

vi) Repeatability
vii) Resolution

viii) Threshold

ix) Drift

x) Stability

xi) Tolerance

xii) Range or span

Accuracy:

It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of
the quantity to be measured. The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:

a) Point accuracy:

Such accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale.

It does not give any information about the accuracy at any other Point on the scale.

b) Accuracy as percentage of scale span:

When an instrument as uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of

scale range.

c) Accuracy as percentage of true value:

The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in

terms of the true value of the quantity being measured. Precision: It is the measure
of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a measure of
the degree of agreement within a group of measurements. The precision is
composed of two characteristics:
a) Conformity:

Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 , which is being measured by an

ohmmeter. But the reader can read consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to the
nonavailability of proper scale. The error created due to the limitation of the scale
reading is a precision error.

b) Number of significant figures:

The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant

figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual
information about the magnitude & the measurement precision of the quantity.
The precision can be mathematically expressed as:

Where, P = precision
Xn = Value of nth measurement
Xn = Average value the set of measurement values

Sensitivity:

The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the
instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an
instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured. Mathematically
it is expressed as,
Thus, if the calibration curve is liner, as shown, the sensitivity of the instrument is
the slope of the calibration curve. If the calibration curve is not linear as shown,
then the sensitivity varies with the input. Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor is
defined as the reciprocal of sensitivity. Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor = 1/
sensitivity
Reproducibility:

It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured.
It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.

Repeatability:
It is defined as the variation of scale reading & random in nature Drift:
Drift may be classified into three categories:

a) zero drift:

If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to
undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.

b) span drift or sensitivity drift

If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the
drifts is called span drift or sensitivity drift.

c) Zonal drift:

In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal
drift.

Resolution:
If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be
found that output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This
increment is called resolution.

Threshold:

If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be some
minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This minimum
value defines the threshold of the instrument.

Stability:

It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is

specified operating life.

Tolerance:

The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some

value which is called tolerance.

Range or span:

The minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is

designed to measure is called its range or span.

Dynamic characteristics:

The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly with time,
is called ‘dynamic characteristics’.
The various static characteristics are:
i) Speed of response
ii) Measuring lag
iii) Fidelity
iv) Dynamic error
Speed of response:

It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes

in the measured quantity.

Measuring lag:

It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in

the measured quantity. The measuring lags are of two types:

a) Retardation type:

In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately after the
change in measured quantity has occurred.

b) Time delay lag:

In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead time after
the application of the input. Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a
measurement system indicates changes in the measurand quantity without dynamic
error.

Dynamic error:

It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time & the
value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also
called measurement error.

Source: http://mediatoget.blogspot.in/2012/01/static-dynamic-characteristics-
of.html