UNIT I
Concepts of Measurement
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Measurements
Measurement: Comparison between a
standard and what we want to measure (the
measurand).
Two quantities are compared the result is
expressed in numerical values.
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Basic requirements for a
meaningful measurement
The standard used for comparison purposes
must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted.
The apparatus used and the method adopted
must be provable (verifiable).
3
Two major functions of all branch
of engineering
Design of equipment and processes
Proper Operation and maintenance of
equipment and processes.
4
Methods of Measurement
Direct Methods
Indirect Methods
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DIRECT METHODS: In these methods, the
unknown quantity (called the measurand ) is
directly compared against a standard.
INDIRECT METHOD: Measurements by direct
methods are not always possible, feasible
and practicable. In engineering applications
measurement systems are used which require
need of indirect method for measurement
purposes.
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Instruments and Measurement
Systems.
Measurement involve the use of
instruments as a physical means of
determining quantities or variables.
Because of modular nature of the
elements within it, it is common to refer
the measuring instrument as a
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM.
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Evolution of Instruments.
a) Mechanical
b) Electrical
c) Electronic Instruments.
MECHANICAL: These instruments are
very reliable for static and stable
conditions. But their disadvantage is that
they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and transient
conditions.
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Contd
ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical,
indicating the output are rapid than mechanical
methods. But it depends on the mechanical
movement of the meters. The response is 0.5 to
24 seconds.
ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other
system. It uses semiconductor devices and weak
signal can also be detected.
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Classification Of Instruments
Absolute Instruments.
Secondary Instruments.
ABSOLUTE: These instruments give the
magnitude if the quantity under
measurement terms of physical constants
of the instrument.
SECONDARY: These instruments are
calibrated by the comparison with absolute
instruments which have already been
calibrated.
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Further its classified as
Deflection Type Instruments
Null Type Instruments.
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Functions of instrument and measuring
system can be classified into three. They
are:
i) Indicating function.
ii) Recording function.
iii) Controlling function.
Application of measurement systems are:
i) Monitoring of process and operation.
ii) Control of processes and operation.
iii) Experimental engineering analysis.
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Types Of Instrumentation
System
Intelligent Instrumentation (data has been
refined for the purpose of presentation )
Dumb Instrumentation (data must be
processed by the observer)
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Elements of Generalized
Measurement System
Primary sensing element.
Variable conversion element.
Data presentation element.
PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: The
quantity under measurement makes its first
contact with the primary sensing element of
a measurement system.
VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: It
converts the output of the primary sensing
element into suitable form to preserve the
information content of the original signal.
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Contd..
DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT:
The information about the quantity under
measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the
system for monitoring, control or analysis
purpose.
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Functional Elements of an
Instrumentation System
PRIMARY VARIABLE VARIABLE DATA DATA
QUANTITY CONVER MANIPULATI- TRANSMISSIO PRESENTA
TO BE SENSING
-SION ON ELEMENT -N ELEMENT TION
MEASURED ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT
DATA CONDITIONING ELEMENT
TERMINATING
DETECTOR INTERMEDIATE STAGE STAGE
TRANSDUCER
STAGE
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Static Characteristics Of
Instruments And Measurement
Systems ( Ref 4, Chapter 2)
Application involved measurement of
quantity that are either constant or varies
slowly with time is known as static.
Accuracy
Drift
Dead Zone
Static Error
Sensitivity
Reproducibility 17
Static Characteristics
Static correction
Scale range
Scale span
Noise
Dead Time
Hysteresis.
Linearity
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ACCURACY: It is the closeness with an
instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured.
TRUE VALUE: True value of quantity
may be defined as the average of an infinite
no. of measured value.
SENSITIVITY is defined as the ratio of
the magnitude of the output response to that
of input response.
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STATIC ERROR: It is defined as the
difference between the measured value
and true value of the quantity.
A=Am-At
Where Am =measured value of quantity
At =true value of quantity.
It is also called as the absolute static error.
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SCALE RANGE: The scale range of an
instrument is defined as the difference
between the largest and the smallest reading
of the instrument.
Suppose highest point of calibration is Xmax
units while the lowest is Xmin units, then the
instrument range is between Xmin and Xmax.
SCALE SPAN: Scale span or instrument
span is given as Scale span= Xmax - Xmin
It is the difference between highest and
lowest point of calibration.
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Reproducibility is specified in terms of
scale readings over a given period of time.
Drift is an undesirable quality in industrial
instruments because it is rarely apparent
and cannot be maintained.
It is classified as
a) Zero drift
b) Span drift or sensitivity drift
c) Zonal drift.
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Dynamic Characteristics of
Measurement System
( Ref 4, Chapter 4)
• Speed of response
• Measuring lag
• Fidelity
• Dynamic error
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.
SPEED OF RESPONSE :It is defined as
the rapidity with which a measurement
system responds to changes in measured
quantity. It is one of the dynamic
characteristics of a measurement system.
FIDELITY: It is defined as the degree to
which a measurement system indicates
changes in the measured quantity without
any dynamic error.
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Dynamic Error
It is the difference between the true value
of the quantity changing with time and the
value indicated by the measurement system
if no static error is assumed. It is also
called measurement error. It is one the
dynamic characteristics.
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Measuring Lag
It is the retardation delay in the response of
a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity. It is of 2 types:
Retardation type: The response begins
immediately after a change in measured
quantity has occurred.
Time delay: The response of the
measurement system begins after a dead
zone after the application of the input.
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Errors in Measurement
Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors)
Known Error
Classification
Gross Systematic Or Random Or
Error Cumulative Residual Or
Error Accidental
Error
Instrumental Environmental Observational
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Gross Error
Human Mistakes in reading , recording and
calculating measurement results.
The experimenter may grossly misread the
scale.
E.g.: Due to oversight instead of 21.5oC,
they may read as 31.5oC
They may transpose the reading while
recording (like reading 25.8oC and
record as 28.5oC)
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Systematic Errors
INSTRUMENTAL ERROR: These errors
arise due to 3 reasons-
• Due to inherent short comings in the
instrument
• Due to misuse of the instrument
• Due to loading effects of the instrument
ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR: These errors
are due to conditions external to the measuring
device. These may be effects of temperature,
pressure, humidity, dust or of external electrostatic
or magnetic field.
OBSERVATIONAL ERROR: The error on
account of parallax is the observational error.
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Residual error
This is also known as residual error. These
errors are due to a multitude of small
factors which change or fluctuate from one
measurement to another. The happenings or
disturbances about which we are unaware
are lumped together and called “Random”
or “Residual”. Hence the errors caused by
these are called random or residual errors.
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Arithmetic Mean
The most probable value of measured variable is
the arithmetic mean of the number of readings
taken.
x1 x2 .....xn x
It is given by x n
n
Where x = arithmetic mean
x1,x2,.. x3= readings of samples
n= number of readings
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Deviation
Deviation is departure of the observed reading
from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings.
d1 x1 X
d 2 x2 X
d 3 x3 X
d n xn X
d1 d 2 d 3 ..... d n 0
ie
( x1 X ) ( x2 X ) ( x3 X ) .. ( xn X )
( x1 x2 x3 ... xn ) n X
nX nX 0
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Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of an infinite number of
data is defined as the square root of the sum of the
individual deviations squared divided by the
number of readings.
S .D
d d d ... d
1
2 2
2
2
3
2
4
d 2
20observation
n n
S .D s
d12 d 22 d 32 ... d 42
d 2
20observation
n 1 n 1
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Variance
Variance S .D
2 2
d 2
n
20observation
Variance S .D s
2 2
d 2
n 1
20observation
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Probable Error
Probable error of one reading(r1)=0.6745s
Probable error of mean (rm)
r1
rm
n 1
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Problem
Question: The following 10 observation were
recorded when measuring a voltage:
41.7,42.0,41.8,42.0,42.1,
41.9,42.0,41.9,42.5,41.8 volts.
1. Mean
2. Standard Deviation
3. Probable Error
4. Range.
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Answer
Mean=41.97 volt
S.D=0.22 volt
Probable error=0.15 volt
Range=0.8 volt.
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Calibration
Calibration of all instruments is important since it
affords the opportunity to check the instruments
against a known standard and subsequently to find
errors and accuracy.
Calibration Procedure involve a comparison of the
particular instrument with either
a Primary standard
a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than
the instrument to be calibrated.
an instrument of known accuracy.
38
Standards
A standard is a physical representation of
a unit of measurement. The term ‘standard’
is applied to a piece of equipment having a
known measure of physical quantity.
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Types of Standards
– International Standards (defined based
on international agreement )
– Primary Standards (maintained by
national standards laboratories)
– Secondary Standards ( used by industrial
measurement laboratories)
– Working Standards ( used in general
laboratory)
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THANK YOU
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