A REPORT ON
“MEASUREMENTS AND
ANALOG METERS”
RAMKRISHNA MAHATO
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING
COLLEGE
NAME: soumodip chatterjee
ROLL: 35001622012
SEMESTER: 4th
STREAM: electrical engineering
SUBJECT: measurements & analog meters
SUBJECT CODE: pc-ee-403
SESSION: 2022-26 soumodip chatterjee
[COMPANY NAME] [Company address]
introduction to electrical
measurements
Electrical measurements are the methods, devices and calculations
used to measure electrical quantities. Measurement of electrical
quantities may be done to measure electrical parameters of a
system.
Fundamental methods of Measurement
Two basic methods are commonly employed for measurement.
(a) Direct comparison with primary or secondary standard.
(b) Indirect comparison through the use of calibrated system.
(a)Direct comparison
In this method, measurement is made directly by comparing the
unknown magnitude with a standard & the result is expressed by a
number. The simplest example for this would be, length
measurement using a meter scale. Here we compare the bar’s
length(unknown quantity/measure and) with a scale
(Standard/predefined one). We say that the bar measures so many
mms, cms or inches in length.
• Direct comparison methods are quite common for measurement
of physical quantities like length, mass, etc.
• It is easy and quick.
(b) Indirect comparison
In this method several parameters (to which the quantity to be
measured is linked with) are measured directly and then the value is
determined by mathematical relationship. For example,
measurement of density by measuring mass and geometrical
dimensions.
systems of measurements:
1. Primary measurement
2. Secondary measurement
3. Tertiary measurement
1.Primary measurement
A primary measurement is one that can be made by direct
observation without involving any conversion (translation) of the
measured quantity into length.
Examples:Matching of two colors-in finding the temperature of a red
hot object.
2.Secondary Measurement:
The indirect measurement involving one translation are called
secondary measurement. The conversion of pressure into
displacement is an simple example of secondary measurement.
3.Tertiary Measurement:
The indirect measurement involving two conversions are called
tertiary measurements. The measurement of the speed of a rotating
shaft by means of an electric tachometer is the example of tertiary
measurements.
classification of instruments :
Basic classification of measuring instruments:
1. Mechanical Instruments:- They are very reliable for static and
stable conditions. The disadvantage is they are unable to respond
rapidly to measurement of dynamic and transient conditions.
2. Electrical Instruments:- Electrical methods of indicating the output
of detectors are more rapid than mechanical methods. The electrical
system normally depends upon a mechanical meter movement as
indicating device.
3. Electronic Instruments:- These instruments have very fast
response. For example a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is capable to
follow dynamic and transient changes of the order of few nano
seconds (10-9 sec).
• Analog instrument
The measured parameter value is display by the moveable pointer.
The pointer will moved continuously with the variable
parameter/analog signal which is measured. The reading is
inaccurate because of parallax error (parallel) during the skill reading.
E.g: ampere meter, voltage meter, ohm meter etc.
• Digital instrument
The measured parameter value is display in decimal (digital) form
which the reading can be read thru in numbers form. Therefore, the
parallax error is not existed and terminated. The concept used for
digital signal in a digital instrument is logic binary ‘0’and ‘1’.
characteristic of instruments
Two basic characteristic of an instrument is essential for selecting the
most suitable
instrument for specific measuring jobs:
A. Static characteristic
B. Dynamic characteristic
A.Static characteristic of an instrument are, in general, considered
for instruments which are used to measure an unvarying process
condition.
Several terms of static characteristic that have discussed:
1. Instrument – A device or mechanism used to determine the
present value of a quantity under observation.
2. Measurement – The process of determining the amount,
degree, capacity by comparison (direct or indirect) with the accepted
standards of the system units being used.
3. Accuracy – The degree of exactness (closeness) of a
measurement compared to the expected (desired) value.
4. Resolution – The smallest change in a measured variable to
which instruments will response. Also known as ‘Threshold’.
5. Precision – A measure of consistency or repeatability of
measurements, i.e. successive readings do not differ or the
consistency of the instrument output for a given value of input. A
very precise reading though is not perfectly an accurate reading.
6. Expected value – The design value that is, “most probable
value” that calculations indicate one should expect to measure.
7. Hysterisis – The different loading and unloading curve due to the
magnetic hysterisis of the iron. E.g.: Occur to a moving iron
voltmeter, it is slowly varies from zero to full scale value and then
back to zero; the input-output curve will be different.
8. Dead Zone/band – The total range of possible values for
instrument will not given a reading even there is changes in
measured parameter.
9. Nominal value - Is some value of input and output that had
been stated by the manufacturer for user manual.
10. Bias – A constant error that occur to instrument when the
pointer not starting from zero scale.
11. Range – A minimum and maximum range for instrument to
operate and it is stated by the manufacturer of the instrument.
12. Sensitivity – The ratio of the change in output (response) of the
instrument to a change of input or measured variable
B.Dynamic characteristic are concerned with the measurement of
quantities that vary with time.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are
(i) Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which an instrument
responds to changes in the measured Quantity.
(ii) Fidelity:It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the
changes in the measured Variable without dynamic error
(faithful reproduction or fidelity of an instrument is the Ability
of reproducing an input signal faithfully (truly).
(iii) Lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of an
instrument to changes in the Measured variable.
(iv) Dynamic Error:Error which is caused by dynamic influences
acting on the system such as vibration, roll, pitch or linear
acceleration. This error may have an amplitude and usually a
frequency related to the environmental influences and the
parameters of the system itself.
classifications of error:
Errors are generally categories under the following three major
heating:
1. Gross Errors - Is generally the fault of the person using instruments
and are due to such things as incorrect reading of instruments,
incorrect recording of experimental data or incorrect use of
instrument.
2. Systematic Errors – are due to problems with instruments,
environment effects or observational errors.
• Instrument errors – It is due to friction in the bearings of the
meter movement, incorrect spring tension, improper calibration,
or faulty instruments.
• Environmental errors – Environmental conditions in which
instruments are used may cause errors. Subjecting instruments to
harsh environments such high temperature, pressure, humidity,
strong electrostatic or electromagnetic fields, may have detrimental
effects, thereby causing error.
• Observational errors - Those errors that introduced by observer.
Two most common observational errors are probably the parallax
error introduced in reading a meter scale and error of estimation
when obtaining a reading from a scale meter.
3. Random Errors – are generally the accumulation of a large number
of small effects and may be of real concern only in measurements
requiring a high degree of accuracy. Such errors can be analyzed
statistically.
errors in measuring instruments:
Static Error
Static error is defined as a difference between the measured value
and the true value of the quantity being measured. It is expressed as
follows.
δA= Am - At ------------------- (1)
Where, δA= Error, Am =Measured value of quantity and At= True
value of quantity.δA is also called as absolute static error of quantity
A and it is expressed as follows.
ε0=δA ------------------------- (2)
Where, ε0 = Absolute static error of quantity A under measurement.
The absolute value of δA does not specify exactly the accuracy of
measurement .so the quality of measurement is provided by relative
static error.
Relative static error
Relative static error is defined as the ratio between the absolute
static errors and true value of quantity being measured. It is
expressed as follows.
Static Error Correction
It is the difference between the true value and the measured value of
quantity. δC= At – Am ---------------- (5)
Where, δC= Static Error Correction = - δA
* For Detail Error correction (Rectification or Elimination or
Reduction) methods of
Relative (Fractional) Limiting Error
The relative limiting error is defined as the ratio of the error to the
specified (nominal) magnitude of the quantity.
Relative Limiting Error =
Then limiting values calculated as follows, We know that 𝐴𝑎 =
𝐴𝑛 ±δA=𝐴𝑛 ± 𝜀𝑟 𝐴𝑛 = (1±𝜀𝑟 )
Percentage limiting error % 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝑟 x100
In limiting errors the nominal value 𝐴𝑛 , is taken as the true value or
quantity, the quantity which has the maximum deviation from 𝐴𝑎 , is
taken as the incorrect quantity. Then δA =𝐴𝑎 − 𝐴𝑛
𝐴𝑎 −𝐴𝑛
Therefore Relative Limiting Error 𝜀𝑟 = =(Actual value-nominal
𝐴𝑛
value )/nom inal value
For Example, considered 𝐴𝑛 -100𝛺 and δA =±10 𝛺; Relative limiting
δA 10
error𝜀𝑟 = =± = ±0.1
𝐴𝑛 100
Percentage Limiting error %𝜀𝑟 =0.1x100=±10%
Limiting values of resistance are:
𝐴𝑎 = 𝐴𝑛 (1±𝜀𝑟 ) 100 (1 ± 0.1)=100±10 𝛺
