Instrumentation and Measurement: Definitions and Examples

Here are the key concepts from your presentation, each with a definition and two illustrative examples.

1. Instrumentation
Definition: The application of instruments in the form of a system or device to accomplish special objectives of measurement and control.

Example 1: A home heating system uses a thermostat (instrument) to measure room temperature and control the furnace to maintain a desired temperature.

Example 2: In a car, the engine control unit (ECU) uses various sensors (instruments) to measure parameters like oxygen levels and engine speed to control
fuel injection and ignition timing.

2. Measurement
Definition: The process of quantifying a physical quantity to express it as a meaningful number.

Example 1: Using a kitchen scale to determine that a bag of flour weighs 2 kilograms.

Example 2: Using a stopwatch to find that a sprinter ran the 100-meter dash in 9.58 seconds.

3. Instrument
Definition: A device through which we can determine the magnitude or value of the quantity to be measured.

Example 1: A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure the electrical voltage.

Example 2: A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.

4. Measurand
Definition: The specific physical quantity that is being measured.

Example 1: When using a thermometer to check for a fever, the temperature of the body is the measurand.

Example 2: When an electric company measures your power usage, the electrical energy (in kilowatt-hours) is the measurand.

5. Direct vs. Indirect Measurement

Direct Measurement Definition: The value of a quantity is obtained directly by comparing the unknown with a standard.

Example 1: Measuring the length of a desk directly with a tape measure.

Example 2: Measuring the mass of an apple by placing it on a weighing scale.

Indirect Measurement Definition: The value of a quantity is determined by measuring other related quantities and then using a mathematical relationship.

Example 1: Calculating the area of a room (indirect measurement) by first measuring its length and width (direct measurements) and then multiplying them.

Example 2: Determining a car's speed (indirect measurement) by measuring the distance it travels and the time it takes, then calculating speed =
distance/time.

6. Comparison vs. Deflection Methods

Deflection Method Definition: The value of the unknown quantity is indicated by the movement (deflection) of a pointer on a calibrated scale.

Example 1: An analog ammeter where the needle moves to show the amount of current flowing.

Example 2: A tire pressure gauge where a calibrated rod pushes out to indicate the pressure.

Null Method Definition (Comparison): The quantity to be measured is compared against a known standard, and the measurement is taken when the difference
between them is zero.

Example 1: A Wheatstone bridge measures an unknown resistance by adjusting a known resistance until a galvanometer shows zero current, indicating a
balanced (null) condition.

Example 2: A classic two-pan balance where you add known weights to one side until it perfectly balances the unknown object on the other side.

7. Types of Instruments
Analog Instrument: An instrument that shows the output by the deflection of a pointer on a continuous scale.

Example 1: A traditional wall clock with hour, minute, and second hands.

Example 2: A car's speedometer with a needle that sweeps across a range of speeds.

Digital Instrument: An instrument that shows the output as a discrete numerical value.

Example 1: A digital kitchen scale that displays the weight as a number (e.g., 150.5 g).

Example 2: A digital multimeter that displays voltage as a number (e.g., 12.1 V).

Absolute vs. Secondary Instrument:

Absolute: Determines the quantity's magnitude based on the instrument's physical constants. Rarely used for general purposes. (e.g., Tangent
Galvanometer).

Secondary: Shows the value directly on a pre-calibrated scale. Most common instruments are secondary. (e.g., Voltmeter, Ammeter).

Active vs. Passive Instrument:

Active: Requires an external power source to operate. (e.g., A Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope).

Passive: Operates without any external power source; powered by the measurand itself. (e.g., A mercury-in-glass thermometer).

Indicating, Recording, & Integrating Instruments:

Indicating: Shows the real-time or instantaneous value. (e.g., A car's speedometer).

Recording: Creates a record of the measurement over time. (e.g., A seismograph recording earthquake tremors).

Integrating: Measures and displays the total amount of a quantity over a period. (e.g., A home electricity meter showing total kWh consumed).

8. Static Characteristics of Instruments

Accuracy: How close a measurement is to the true or actual value.

Example 1: A clock that shows the time as 12:01 when the actual time is 12:00 is more accurate than one that shows 12:05.

Example 2: A dart player who consistently hits the bullseye is highly accurate.

Precision: How close multiple measurements of the same quantity are to each other (repeatability).

Example 1: Taking five temperature readings that are 37.0°C, 37.1°C, 37.0°C, 37.1°C, and 37.0°C demonstrates high precision.

Example 2: A dart player who consistently hits the same spot on the board (even if it's not the bullseye) is highly precise.

Resolution: The smallest change in the input that the instrument can detect and display.

Example 1: A digital scale that can measure in increments of 0.1 grams has a resolution of 0.1 g.

Example 2: A ruler with markings every millimeter has a resolution of 1 mm.

Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in the instrument's output to the change in the input (the measurand).

Example 1: If a pressure gauge's needle moves 5 mm for every 1 PSI change, its sensitivity is 5 mm/PSI.

Example 2: A highly sensitive thermometer will show a larger change in its reading for a small change in actual temperature.

Range & Span:

Range: The minimum and maximum values an instrument can measure. (e.g., A voltmeter's range is 0 V to 100 V).

Span: The difference between the maximum and minimum values. (e.g., For the 0-100V voltmeter, the span is 100 V).

Threshold: The minimum input value required to cause any detectable output from the instrument.

Example 1: A weighing scale might not show any reading until a weight of at least 5 grams is placed on it. The threshold is 5 g.

Example 2: A flow meter may not register any flow until the flow rate exceeds 0.1 liters per minute.

9. Calibration
Definition: The process of comparing the readings of an instrument against a known, accurate standard and making adjustments to minimize error.

Example 1: Using a set of certified standard weights to check and adjust a digital scale to ensure it reads correctly.

Example 2: Calibrating a thermometer by placing it in ice water and boiling water to ensure it correctly reads 0°C and 100°C, respectively.

10. Errors in Measurement

Gross Error (Human Error): Mistakes made by the person using the instrument.

Example 1: Misreading a scale, such as reading 5.2 cm when the actual reading is 6.2 cm.

Example 2: Incorrectly recording a value, like writing down 25°C when the instrument showed 35°C.

Systematic Error: Consistent, repeatable errors, often due to instrument flaws or environmental factors.

Example 1: A clock that runs consistently 5 minutes fast is a systematic error.

Example 2: A steel tape measure that has expanded due to heat will give consistently shorter measurements.

Random Error: Unpredictable, fluctuating errors caused by unknown and uncontrollable variables.

Example 1: Minor fluctuations in the reading of a sensitive electronic balance due to air currents.

Example 2: Variations in a person's reaction time when starting and stopping a stopwatch.

Absolute Error: The difference between the measured value and the true value.

Formula: Absolute Error = |True Value - Measured Value|

Example: If the true length is 10.0 cm and it is measured as 9.9 cm, the absolute error is 0.1 cm.

Percentage Error: The absolute error expressed as a percentage of the true value.

Formula: % Error = (|True Value - Measured Value| / True Value) * 100%

Example: For the 10.0 cm length measured as 9.9 cm, the % error is (0.1 / 10.0) * 100% = 1%.

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSDUCERS

Here's a brief note for each transducer type discussed in the provided PDF, covering its definition, construction, working principle, and relevant formulas.

Comprehensive Notes from 'Introduction to Transducer.pdf'

1. Transducer (General Concept)

Definition: A sensing device (or instrument) that provides a usable electrical output in response to a specific measurand. Fundamentally, a transducer
converts one form of energy into another. It is a sub-category of sensors; while all transducers are sensors, not all sensors are transducers.
 Construction: This term describes a broad category of devices, so a specific construction is not applicable. However, a transducer's description is
generally based on the measurand (what quantity is being measured), the transduction principle (its operating principle), and its intended range.

Diagram: Pages 1 and 2 illustrate general pressure transducer systems (Absolute, Relative, Differential Pressure Transducers) which conceptually show a
"Sensor" block within a system, representing the transducer's role.

Working Principle: The core principle involves converting a non-electrical physical quantity (like pressure, temperature, displacement) into a usable
electrical signal (voltage, current, resistance change, etc.). This energy conversion is central to its function.

Formula: Not applicable for the general concept of a transducer.

2. Transduction Principles

This section describes the fundamental physical effects employed by transducers to convert energy.

a. Capacitive Transduction

Definition: A principle where a measurand causes a change in capacitance.

Construction: Typically involves two electrodes separated by a dielectric material. Capacitance changes can occur due to motion of one electrode or
changes in the dielectric constant.

Diagram: Page 9 shows diagrams for "Variable plate area" and "Diaphragm-based" capacitive transducers, illustrating how physical changes affect
capacitance.

Working Principle: The physical change in the measurand (e.g., displacement, pressure) alters the geometric configuration of the electrodes (area or
distance) or the properties of the dielectric material, thereby changing the capacitance. This change is then measured.

Formula: Capacitance (C) for parallel plates: C=KdA​(where K is the dielectric constant, A is the area of the plates, and d is the distance between the
plates).

b. Inductive Transduction

Definition: A principle where a measurand causes a change in the self-inductance of a single coil.

Construction: Involves a single coil, and typically a ferromagnetic core whose position can be varied.

Diagram: No specific diagram is provided for the general inductive principle in the PDF.

Working Principle: The measurand (e.g., displacement) causes the motion of a ferromagnetic core or changes in the magnetic flux, which in turn alters
the self-inductance of the coil. This change in inductance is measured.

Formula: Not explicitly provided for the general principle.

c. Electromagnetic Transduction

Definition: A principle where a measurand causes a change in magnetic flux, which induces an electromotive force (EMF) or output voltage.

Construction: Involves a conductor (or coil) and a magnetic field. The relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic field is key.

Diagram: No specific diagram is provided for the general electromagnetic principle.

Working Principle: When a conductor moves relative to a magnetic field, or when the magnetic flux through a coil changes due to a measurand, an EMF
is induced in the conductor (or coil). This induced EMF is the electrical output.

Formula: Not explicitly provided for the general principle.

d. Piezoelectric Transduction

Definition: A principle where mechanical stress (e.g., compression, tension) applied to a symmetrical crystalline material generates an electrostatic
charge or voltage.

Construction: Uses specific crystalline materials like Quartz, Rochelle salt, or Barium titanate, which exhibit the piezoelectric effect.

Diagram: Page 4 shows a simple block diagram of a piezoelectric sensor. Page 11 illustrates the "Charge model" and "Voltage model" equivalent
circuits.

Working Principle: At the molecular level, the application of mechanical stress deforms the crystal structure, breaking its symmetry and creating a net
electrical dipole moment. This dipole moment forms an electric field (voltage) across the crystal. These are self-generating transducers.

Formula: Output Voltage (E) from a charge source: E=Q/Cp​(where Q is charge and Cp​is capacitance).

Coupling Coefficient (K): K=Applied mechanical energyMechanical energy converted to electrical energy​

​.

e. Resistive Transduction

Definition: A principle where a measurand causes a change in electrical resistance.

Construction: Can involve resistive elements whose length, cross-sectional area, or resistivity changes due to the measurand (e.g., heating/cooling,
mechanical stress), or a wiper arm moving along a resistance element (rheostat).

Diagram: No specific diagram for the general resistive principle. Strain gauges (a type of resistive transducer) are mentioned.

Working Principle: The physical quantity (e.g., temperature, displacement, strain) directly affects the resistance of the sensing element. This change in
resistance is then measured, typically by converting it into a voltage change in a bridge circuit.

Formula: For a conductor, R=ρ×Al​(where ρ is resistivity, l is length, A is cross-sectional area), demonstrating how physical changes affect resistance.
[This formula is not explicitly given in the transduction principle section but is fundamental to resistance, and relevant for RTDs later].

f. Thermoelectric Transduction

Definition: A principle where a temperature difference between junctions of two dissimilar materials generates an electromotive force (EMF).
 Construction: Involves two junctions formed by connecting two different metal wires. One is the sensing (hot) junction, and the other is the reference
(cold) junction.

Diagram: Page 18 shows a basic setup of a thermocouple, illustrating the hot and cold junctions connected to a voltmeter.

Working Principle: Based on the Seebeck effect. When there is a temperature difference between the two junctions of dissimilar metals, a potential
difference (EMF) is created, which drives a current in the circuit. The magnitude of this EMF is proportional to the temperature difference.

Formula: EMF (E) for a thermocouple: E=α(T−T0​)+β(T2−T02​) (where α and β are constants, T is the temperature of the sensing junction, and T0​is the
temperature of the reference junction).

g. Photoconductive Transduction

Definition: A principle where illumination incident on a semiconductor material causes a change in its resistance or conductance.

Construction: Involves a semiconductor material whose electrical conductivity is sensitive to light.

Diagram: No specific diagram provided in the PDF.

Working Principle: When light energy (photons) strikes the semiconductor material, it excites electrons into the conduction band, increasing the number
of free charge carriers. This leads to a decrease in resistance (or increase in conductance) of the material.

Formula: Not explicitly provided.

h. Photovoltaic Transduction

Definition: A principle where illumination incident on a junction of dissimilar materials generates a voltage.

Construction: Involves a junction (e.g., p-n junction) between two dissimilar materials.

Diagram: No specific diagram provided in the PDF.

Working Principle: When light falls on the junction, it creates electron-hole pairs. The internal electric field of the junction separates these charge
carriers, resulting in a potential difference (voltage) across the junction.

Formula: Not explicitly provided.

3. Pressure Sensing Devices (Elastic Deformation Elements)

Definition: A series of mechanical devices that change shape when force or load is applied, converting pressure into displacement. They are also called
elastic deformation pressure elements.

a. Diaphragms

Definition: A flexible circular plate, usually clamped at its periphery, that deforms under pressure.

Construction: Made of elastic metal alloys like bronze, phosphor-bronze, beryllium copper, or stainless steel. Used as the primary sensing element in
some pressure transducers.

Diagram: Page 3 shows a "Diaphragm Seal" illustration. The concept is also integrated into the Absolute, Relative, and Differential Pressure Transducer
diagrams on Pages 1 and 2, where a sensor (often a diaphragm) responds to pressure.

Working Principle: When pressure is applied to one side of the diaphragm, it causes the diaphragm to stretch. The displacement of the diaphragm's
center is then measured by an electrical transducer (e.g., capacitive or strain gauge). They are best suited for low pressures.

Formula: Not explicitly provided for diaphragm deformation, but pressure unit conversions are given: 1 Pascal (Pa) = 10−5 Bar = 9.869×10−6 atm =
1.450×10−4 PSI.

b. Bellows

Definition: A serviceable elastic deformation element often described as cascaded capsules.

Construction: Made from materials like brass, phosphor-bronze, and nickel alloys, designed as a series of expandable, corrugated chambers.

Diagram: Page 3 includes a diagram labeled "Bellows" illustrating its corrugated structure.

Working Principle: Applied pressure causes the bellows to expand or contract axially. This linear displacement is then measured by an electrical
transducer. Bellows are suitable for slightly higher pressures than diaphragms.

Formula: Not explicitly provided.

c. Bourdon Tubes

Definition: A curved, flattened tube that tends to straighten out when subjected to internal pressure.

Construction: Made from materials such as phosphor-bronze, alloy steel, cold-worked brass, beryllium copper, and stainless steel. It can be C-shaped,
spiral, or helical.

Diagram: Page 4 shows a diagram of a "Bourdon Tube," illustrating its C-shape and connections.

Working Principle: When internal pressure is applied, the oval cross-section of the tube becomes more circular, causing the tube to straighten or uncoil.
The movement of the free end is proportional to the applied pressure and can be linked to an indicator or an electrical transducer. They are used for
higher pressures than bellows.

Formula: Not explicitly provided.

4. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) / Resistance Thermometer

Definition: A temperature transducer that operates on the principle that the electrical resistance of pure metals changes predictably with temperature.

Construction:

Consists of a sensing element typically made of a fine wire (e.g., Platinum, Nickel, Copper) coiled or wound onto a ceramic or glass bobbin, or a thin
film deposit.
 It requires an external voltage source (excitation) and is often connected to a Wheatstone bridge for resistance measurement.

Materials: Platinum is commonly used due to its linear resistance-temperature relationship, stability, and wide temperature range (e.g., PT-100). Nickel
and Copper are also used.

Diagram: Page 11 illustrates an RTD connected to a Wheatstone bridge circuit.

Working Principle: As the temperature of the pure metal element changes, its electrical resistance changes proportionally. This change in resistance
unbalances the Wheatstone bridge, producing a measurable voltage output that corresponds to the temperature.

Formula:

Linear approximation: Rt​=R0​(1+αt) (where Rt​is resistance at temperature t, R0​is resistance at 0∘C, and α is the temperature coefficient of resistance).

More accurate equations for Platinum RTDs (Callendar-Van Dusen Equation):

For 0∘C<t<650∘C: Rt​=R0​(1+At+Bt2)

For −200∘C<t<0∘C: Rt​=R0​(1+At+Bt2+C(t−100)t3)

Constants A, B, C are specific to the RTD material.

5. Thermistors

Definition: "Thermal Resistors"; thermally sensitive semiconductor devices whose electrical resistance varies significantly as a function of temperature.
They typically exhibit a high negative temperature coefficient (NTC).

Construction: Made from sintered mixtures of metallic oxides (e.g., manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, zinc) pressed into bead, disc, or rod shapes.
They are sealed in glass or epoxy.

Diagram: Page 14 shows a simple temperature measurement circuit using a thermistor in series with a battery and a micro-ammeter. Page 17 illustrates a
thermistor used in an AC excited bridge circuit for temperature control.

Working Principle: The semiconductor material's resistance changes rapidly and non-linearly with temperature. As temperature increases, the number of
charge carriers increases, causing resistance to decrease significantly (NTC). This large change in resistance per unit temperature change provides high
sensitivity and resolution.

Formula: Resistance (R) as a function of temperature: R=R0​eβ(1/T−1/T0​) (where R0​is resistance at reference temperature T0​, T is absolute temperature
in Kelvin, and β is a constant related to the material, often called the material constant).

This can be expressed logarithmically: lnR=lnR0​+β(T1​−T0​1​).

6. Thermocouples

Definition: Devices used for measuring moderately high temperatures, operating on the Seebeck effect, where a voltage difference is produced when
two junctions of dissimilar metals are at different temperatures.

Construction: Consists of two wires made of dissimilar metals (e.g., Iron-Constantan, Chromel-Alumel) joined at one end to form the sensing junction
(hot junction). The other ends are connected to a reference junction (cold junction), typically kept at a known constant temperature or compensated.

Diagram: Page 18 shows a basic thermocouple circuit with a sensing (hot) junction and a reference (cold) junction connected to a voltmeter. Page 20
displays a graph showing "Thermocouple O/P voltage as a function of temperature for various thermocouple materials" (e.g., Type J, K, T, E, S).

Working Principle:

When the sensing and reference junctions are at different temperatures, a potential difference (EMF) is generated in the circuit, causing a current to
flow.

The magnitude of this EMF is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the junctions and depends on the specific types of metals
used.

This EMF is measured to infer the temperature at the sensing junction.

Formula: EMF (E) generated by a thermocouple: E=α(T−T0​)+β(T2−T02​) (where α and β are empirical constants specific to the thermocouple materials, T
is the temperature of the sensing junction, and T0​is the temperature of the reference junction).

1. Capacitive Transducer
Definition: Converts a change in a measurand into a change in capacitance.
Construction: Typically consists of two electrodes separated by a dielectric. Changes can be caused by motion of one electrode, or changes in the dielectric
material between two fixed electrodes. Specific pressure transducers use a metallic diaphragm as one plate and a stationary plate, enclosed in an airtight
container.
Diagram: (Implicit in text) A capacitor with two plates. For variable plate area, a stator (fixed plate) and a rotor (movable plate). For pressure, a deflected
diaphragm and a static plate.
Working Principle: The capacitance (C) between the plates changes due to variation in the effective area (A), distance (d) between them, or the dielectric
constant (K) of the material. This change in capacitance is then measured.
Formula: C= dK⋅A

(Resultant capacitance)

2. Inductive Transducer
Definition: Converts a change in a measurand into a change in the self-inductance of a single coil.
Construction: Typically involves a single coil.
Diagram: (Not provided in PDF for a general inductive transducer).
Working Principle: Inductance changes can be effected by the motion of a ferromagnetic core within the coil or by externally introduced flux changes in a coil
having a fixed core.
Formula: (Not explicitly provided in PDF for a general inductive transducer, but implies inductance calculation).
3. Electromagnetic Transducer

Definition: Converts a change in a measurand into an electromotive force (output voltage) induced in a conductor.
Construction: Involves a conductor within a magnetic field.
Diagram: (Not explicitly provided in PDF).
Working Principle: A change in magnetic flux induced in the conductor, usually due to relative motion between the conductor and a magnetic field (in the
absence of external excitation), generates an EMF.
Formula: (Not explicitly provided in PDF, but implies principles of Faraday's Law of Induction).

4. Piezoelectric Transducer
Definition: Converts a change in measurand (mechanical stress/pressure) into a change in electrostatic charge (Q) or voltage (E) generated by certain
materials.
Construction: Consists of a symmetrical crystalline material (e.g., Quartz, Rochelle salt, Barium titanate) placed between a solid base and a force-summing
member.
Diagram: (Provided in PDF: "Force summing" illustration showing crystal between base and force). Also depicted in microphone applications.
Working Principle: At the molecular level, these ionic-bonded crystals have dipoles that cancel at rest. When mechanically stressed, the crystal deforms,
symmetry is lost, creating a net dipole moment and forming an electric field. This produces an AC voltage. It is a self-generating device.
Formulas:
Output Voltage: E= Cp Q

(where Q=generated charge, Cp=shunt capacitance) Coupling coefficient: K= Applied mechanical energy Mechanical energy converted to electrical energy
or K= Applied electrical energy
Electrical energy converted to mechanical energy)

5. Resistive Transducer
Definition: Converts a change in measurand into a change in electrical resistance.
Construction: Can be conductors or semiconductors.
Diagram: (Not provided for a general resistive transducer, but implied by strain gauge/RTD circuits).
Working Principle: Resistance changes can be effected by heating/cooling, applying mechanical stresses, or by moving a wiper in a rheostat.
Formula: (Not explicitly provided for general resistive transducer, but fundamental R=ρL/A applies).

6. Strain Gauge Transducer (Specific Resistive Transducer)

Definition: Converts a change in measurand (strain) into a change in resistance due to strains.
Construction: Involves two or four resistive strain transducers (strain gauges) connected into a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
Diagram: (Implicit in text, showing Wheatstone bridge with strain gauges).
Working Principle: When strain is applied to the strain gauge, its resistance changes. This resistance change unbalances the Wheatstone bridge, producing
an output voltage change proportional to the strain.
Formula: (Output voltage of Wheatstone bridge, not explicitly given but implied by principles of resistive change).

7. Thermoelectric Transducer
Definition: Converts a change in measurand (temperature difference) into a change in the electromotive force (EMF) generated.
Construction: Consists of a pair of wires made up of two selected dissimilar metals joined together at one end (sensing/hot junction) and terminated at the
other end (reference/cold junction).
Diagram: (Provided in PDF: "Basic thermocouple connection" showing two metals joined at a junction).
Working Principle: Based on the Seebeck effect, a temperature difference between the sensing and reference junctions produces an EMF, causing current to
circulate. If the circuit is opened, a voltage proportional to the observed Seebeck current appears. Peltier effect is its opposite.
Formula: E=α(T−T0)+β(T2−T02)

(EMF generated, where T is hot junction temp, T0 is cold junction temp, α and β are material constants).

8. Photoconductive Transducer
Definition: Converts a change in measurand (amount of illumination) into a change in the resistance (or conductance) of a semiconductor material.
Construction: Uses a semiconductor material.
Diagram: (Not explicitly provided in PDF).
Working Principle: The resistance/conductance of the semiconductor material changes due to a change in the amount of illumination incident upon it.
Formula: (Not explicitly provided in PDF, but implies resistance-light intensity relationship).

9. Photovoltaic Transducer
Definition: Converts a change in measurand (illumination) into a change in the voltage generated.
Construction: Involves a junction between certain dissimilar materials.
Diagram: (Not explicitly provided in PDF).
Working Principle: A voltage is generated when illumination incidents upon a junction between dissimilar materials.
Formula: (Not explicitly provided in PDF, but implies voltage-light intensity relationship).

10. Diaphragms (as Pressure Sensing Element)

Definition: An elastic deformation pressure element primarily used for low-pressure measurement.
Construction: A metallic membrane stretched at its periphery, forming a sealed cavity.
Diagram: (Provided in PDF: "Diaphragm" and "Deflected Diaphragm" illustrations showing housing, diaphragm, displacement, and connections).
Working Principle: When pressure is applied to one side, the diaphragm stretches, and the displacement of its center is measured by an electrical transducer.
It responds to changes in pressure rather than mechanical force.
Formula: (No specific formula for diaphragm operation provided, but contributes to overall pressure transducer formulas like capacitive ones).

11. Bellows (as Pressure Sensing Element)

Definition: A serviceable elastic deformation element used for slightly higher pressures than diaphragms.
Construction: Can be considered to be made of cascaded capsules. Made of brass, phosphor-bronze, or nickel alloys.
Diagram: (Provided in PDF: "Bellows" illustration showing displacement, pressure, and fixed end).
Working Principle: Under pressure, the bellows expand or contract elastically, and this displacement is then measured.
Formula: (No specific formula for bellows operation provided).

12. Bourdon Tubes (as Pressure Sensing Element)

Definition: A pressure sensing element useful for measuring pressures higher than what can be measured with bellows.
Construction: Typically C-shaped tubes made of phosphor-bronze, alloy steel, cold-worked brass, beryllium copper, or stainless steel.
Diagram: (Provided in PDF: "C-shaped bourdon tubes" illustration showing wiper, resistance element, and pivot).
Working Principle: Applied pressure causes the tube to straighten or uncoil, and this mechanical movement is linked to a pointer or an electrical transducer
(e.g., via a resistance element and wiper) to indicate pressure.
Formula: (No specific formula for Bourdon tube operation provided).

13. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) / Resistance Thermometer

Definition: Operates on the principle that the resistance of pure metals varies almost directly proportionally with temperature.
Construction: Typically uses a sensing element made of pure metals like Platinum (most common, PT-100), Nickel, or Copper, often as a fine wire or film.
Changes in resistance are detected by a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
Diagram: (Provided in PDF: "Industrial Platinum Resistance Thermometer" and "Bridge circuit" (Wheatstone bridge)).
Working Principle: As temperature changes, the electrical resistance of the pure metal sensing element changes linearly. This change in resistance is then
converted into a measurable voltage change using a Wheatstone bridge, requiring an external voltage source as it does not generate its own voltage.

Formula: Rt=R 0(1+αt)

(Resistance at temperature t, where R0 is resistance at reference temp t0 , α is temperature coefficient of resistance).

14. Thermistor
Definition: Also called "Thermal Resistors," these are semiconductor devices whose resistance varies significantly as a function of temperature, derived from
thermally sensitive resistors.
Construction: Manufactured from oxides of metals like manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron, zinc, aluminum, titanium, magnesium, and uranium. They are
typically small beads, disks, or rods.
Diagram: (Provided in PDF: Circuit diagram of a thermistor in a bridge for temperature control).
Working Principle: Thermistors have a high negative temperature coefficient (resistance decreases significantly with increasing temperature) and a non-linear
resistance-temperature relationship. This large change in resistance per change in temperature provides high sensitivity and output.
Formula: R=R0 e β/T
(Resistance at temperature T, where R0 and β are constants depending on material and manufacturing, and T is absolute temperature in Kelvin).

15. Thermocouple
Definition: One of the most commonly used methods for measuring moderately high temperatures, based on the thermocouple effect (Seebeck effect).
Construction: Consists of a pair of dissimilar metal wires (e.g., Chromel-Alumel for Type K, Iron-Constantan for Type J) joined together at one end
(sensing/hot junction) and terminated at the other end (reference/cold junction).
Diagram: (Provided in PDF: "Basic thermocouple connection" and graph showing "Thermocouple O/p voltage as a function of temperature for various
thermocouple materials").
Working Principle: When a temperature difference exists between the sensing junction and the reference junction, an EMF (voltage) is produced in the circuit.
The magnitude of this voltage depends on the materials used and the temperature difference.
Formula: E=α(T−T0 )+β(T2−T02 )

(EMF generated, where T is hot junction temp, T0 is cold junction temp, α and β are material constants).

Pressure Transducers
This section covers transducers that convert pressure into an electrical signal.

A. Piezoelectric Transducer
Definition: A transducer that utilizes the piezoelectric effect, where certain crystalline materials generate an electromotive force (EMF) or voltage when
subjected to mechanical stress or pressure. It is a self-generating transducer, meaning it doesn't require an external power source.

Construction: It consists of a piezoelectric crystal (such as Quartz or Barium Titanate) placed between a solid base and a force-summing member (like a
diaphragm). An external force is applied through a pressure port onto this force-summing member.

Diagram:

+---------------------+
| Force-Summing Member| ----> Applied Pressure
+---------------------+
| Piezoelectric |
| Crystal | ----> Output Voltage (EMF)
+---------------------+
| Base |
+---------------------+

Working Principle: When pressure is applied to the force-summing member, it transmits the stress to the crystal. This stress deforms the crystal's structure,
causing a displacement of charge and creating a potential difference (voltage) across its opposite faces. This output voltage is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the applied pressure.

Formula: The basic expression for the output voltage (E) is:

E=
C
p

Where:

Q = Generated charge

C_p = Shunt capacitance of the crystal

B. Capacitive Transducer
Definition: A transducer designed to measure pressure by detecting a change in capacitance. The change in capacitance can be caused by a change in the
distance between plates or a change in the overlapping area of the plates.

Construction:

Variable Distance Type: A common design uses a flexible metallic diaphragm as one plate of a capacitor and a fixed static plate as the other. The two plates
are separated by a dielectric material. The entire assembly is enclosed in an airtight container.

Variable Area Type: This type consists of a fixed plate (stator) and a movable plate (rotor) which is mechanically coupled to the element under test.

Diagram (Variable Distance Type):

 Pressure
|
V
+--------------------------------+
| Movable Diaphragm | (Moves left/right)
| (One capacitor plate) |
+--------------------------------+
<-------- d (distance) --------->
+--------------------------------+
| Static Plate |
| (Second capacitor plate) |
+--------------------------------+

Working Principle: When pressure is applied to the chamber, the diaphragm deflects, moving closer to or farther away from the static plate. This change in the
distance (d) between the plates causes a change in the overall capacitance of the unit. The change in capacitance is then measured and correlated to the
pressure.

Formula: The capacitance (C) is given by:

C= dK⋅A

Where:

K = Dielectric constant of the material between plates

A = Overlapping area of the capacitor surfaces

d = Distance between the two capacitive surfaces

"ADC and DAC"

1. Digital Instruments (General)

Introduction: Digital instruments are a cornerstone of modern measurement, providing readings in a numerical format. They contrast with analog instruments,
which typically display measured quantities using a calibrated scale or pointer movement.
Definition: Digital instruments are devices that display measured quantities in numerical form.
Construction: Their primary components include Digital Gates, Flip-Flops, and Digital Displays (such as LED or LCD screens).
Diagram: Page 1 of the PDF shows various examples of digital instruments like a digital voltmeter, weighing scale, and fuel dispenser display.
Working Principle: They convert physical quantities into discrete digital signals which are then processed and displayed numerically.
Formula: N/A (General concept, no specific formula).
2. Comparison of Analog and Digital Instruments
Introduction: This section highlights the key differences and trade-offs between analog and digital instrumentation, guiding the choice based on application
needs.
Definition: Not a transducer, but a comparative analysis of two instrument types.
Construction: N/A (Comparative analysis).
Diagram: Page 2 presents a table comparing their characteristics, and page 3 shows examples of analog (car speedometer) and digital displays.
Working Principle:
Analog: Indicates data using a calibrated scale. Preferred for monitoring rapid changes where pointer movement is easier to interpret.
Digital: Displays data numerically. Can be processed, saved, or transmitted. Can also include analog-like displays for human interpretation of rapid changes.
Key Comparisons:
Accuracy: Digital is generally more accurate.
Human Error: Higher chance of human error in reading analog instruments.
Durability: Digital are typically more durable/rugged.
Resolution: Digital offers better resolution.
Size: Digital instruments are generally smaller.
Data Handling: Digital data can be processed, saved, or transmitted, unlike analog which is simply indicated.
Formula: N/A (Comparative analysis).
3. Digital Instrument System (Block Diagram)
Introduction: A digital instrumentation system is a structured approach to measuring and displaying physical quantities using digital processing.
Definition: A system that processes input (measurand) through various stages to provide a digital display or output.
Construction (Block Diagram): The system consists of sequential blocks: Source (Input/Measurand), Data Acquisition, Data Processing, Data Distribution, and
Target (Display/Output).
Detailed Block Diagram (Page 5):
Data Acquisition: Sensor -> Signal Conditioning -> Analog-to-Digital Conversion.
Data Processing: Data Processor.
Data Distribution: Digital-to-Analog Conversion -> Signal Conditioning -> Display, Transmitter or Actuator.
Diagram: Page 4 shows a general block diagram, and Page 5 shows a detailed block diagram.
Working Principle:
Data Acquisition: Senses the physical quantity, obtains an electrical signal, amplifies/filters it (signal conditioning), and converts the analog signal to digital
(ADC).
Data Processing: Performs calculations or estimations on the digital data to determine the measurand value.
Data Display/Distribution: Displays the processed digital value (e.g., LED/LCD), or converts it back to analog (DAC) if needed, and can store or transmit the
data.
Formula: N/A (System overview).
4. Sampling
Introduction: Sampling is a critical initial step in converting a continuous analog signal into a discrete digital representation.
Definition: The process of recording an analog signal at regular discrete moments of time, creating samples.
Construction: Implemented as part of Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) circuitry.
Diagram: Page 9 illustrates a continuous sine wave with evenly spaced red dots representing the samples.
Working Principle: An analog signal's voltage is measured at evenly spaced time instants.
Formula:
Sampling Rate (f
s

): Number of samples per second.

Sampling Interval (T
s
 ): The time interval between samples. T
s

=1/f
s

.
5. Quantization
Introduction: Following sampling, quantization is the second crucial step in analog-to-digital conversion, mapping continuous sample values to discrete
levels.
Definition: The process of mapping a continuous sample value to a discrete level. It effectively involves "rounding-off" the sampled amplitude values.
Construction: Implemented as part of Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC) circuitry. The number of discrete levels depends on the number of bits (e.g., 3-bits
yield 0-7 levels).
Diagram: Page 10 shows a sampled sine wave (red dots) where the y-axis values are mapped to discrete levels.
Working Principle: Sampled values, which can still be continuous, are assigned to the closest predefined discrete amplitude levels. This process inherently
introduces an error called quantization error. A digital signal is discrete in both time (from sampling) and value (from quantization).
Formula: N/A (Concept of mapping).
6. Ramp-Type Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
Introduction: The Ramp-Type ADC is a basic circuit design for converting analog voltage signals into digital equivalents.
Definition: A type of Analog-to-Digital Converter that uses a ramp signal to produce a digital count proportional to the analog input voltage.
Construction: Comprises several key blocks:
Voltage Comparator: Compares the analog input voltage (V
i

) with a generated ramp voltage (V

r

).
Ramp Generator: Produces a linearly increasing (ramp) voltage.
Clock Generator: Provides a train of pulses.
AND Gate: Acts as a gate for the clock pulses.
Registers (Counter): Counts the pulses passed through the AND gate.
Reset: Mechanism to reset the counter.
Diagram: Page 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 show the circuit diagram and waveforms explaining its operation.
Working Principle:
The ramp generator starts from 0V and increases linearly.
The voltage comparator compares the analog input V
i

(at its non-inverting terminal) with the ramp voltage V

r

(at its inverting terminal).

While V
i

>V
r

, the comparator output is HIGH.

This HIGH output from the comparator enables the AND gate.
The clock pulses from the clock generator pass through the enabled AND gate and are fed to the counter (register).
The counter counts these pulses.
When V
r

(the ramp) becomes greater than V

i

, the comparator output goes LOW, disabling the AND gate. This stops the clock pulses from reaching the counter.
The count accumulated in the counter at this point is directly proportional to the duration for which the AND gate was enabled, which in turn is proportional to
the input analog voltage V
i

.
The counter resets when the ramp signal goes low, preparing for the next conversion cycle.
Formula: The digital count obtained is proportional to V
i

.
Digital Count ∝V
i

7. Digital Voltmeter (DVM)

Introduction: Digital Voltmeters are instruments that measure and display voltage in digital form, often utilizing ADC principles like the ramp-type converter.
Definition: A digital voltmeter is an instrument that measures and displays voltage in a numerical format.
Construction: A ramp-type DVM typically consists of a ramp-type ADC circuit combined with numerical displays (e.g., 7-segment LEDs) and a latch.
Diagram: Page 18 shows the block diagram for a ramp-type digital voltmeter. Page 19 shows DVM waveforms.
Working Principle:
The analog voltage input is converted to a digital count using the ramp-type ADC principle.
A latch isolates the display from the counting circuit while counting is in progress.
Once the conversion is complete, the final count (representing the measured voltage) is latched and then displayed on LED segments or LCD screens. Driver
circuits may be needed for the display.
Formula: N/A (Application of ADC).
8. Digital Frequency Meter
Introduction: Digital frequency meters are versatile instruments used to accurately measure the frequency of electrical signals or pulses, as well as for
counting applications.
Definition: An instrument used to measure the frequency of supply in electrical circuits or the frequency of electrical pulses. It can also count objects or
events.
Construction:
Block Diagram (Page 22): Unknown frequency signal -> Amplifier -> Schmitt trigger -> Start-stop gate -> Electronic counter -> Readout.
Input Stage (Page 21): Converts the unknown frequency signal into a train of pulses, which is then fed to one input of an AND gate. Another input to the AND
gate is a pulse of 1's duration (a timing gate).
Diagram: Page 20 shows a physical digital frequency meter. Page 21 shows the AND gate principle. Page 22 shows the main block diagram.
Working Principle:
The unknown frequency signal is amplified and converted into a square wave by a Schmitt trigger.
This train of pulses (each pulse representing one cycle of the unknown signal) is fed to a start-stop gate.
A precisely timed gate signal (e.g., 1-second duration) enables the start-stop gate.
During the enabled time period, the pulses from the unknown frequency signal pass through the gate and are counted by an electronic counter.
When the gate is disabled, the counter stops.
The total number of pulses counted during the known time period is directly proportional to the frequency of the unknown signal.
The count is then displayed on a digital readout.
Formula:
frequency=
time period
No of Count

(Page 23)
9. Digital to Analog Converter (DAC) - R/2R Network
Introduction: A Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) is a circuit that converts a digital binary input into an analog voltage or current output. The R/2R network is
a common and relatively simple DAC architecture.
Definition: A DAC that converts a digital input (binary bits) into an analog output voltage, utilizing a ladder network of resistors with values R and 2R.
Construction: The simplest kind of DAC, a 4-bit R/2R network, consists of resistors with values R and 2R.
Resistors: Resistors R
3

,R
5

,R
7

each have resistance R. Resistors R

1

,R
2

,R
4

,R
6

,R
8

each have resistance 2R.

Digital Inputs: Has digital input terminals (e.g., A, B, C, D for a 4-bit DAC), where each input voltage is either zero (ground) or a reference voltage (V
i

, e.g., 5V).
Diagram: Page 25 shows the "DAC circuit using R/2R network." Pages 26 and 27 show simplified circuits for understanding the voltage division at different
junctions. Page 31 shows a table of digital inputs and corresponding analog outputs.
Working Principle:
The R/2R ladder network cleverly uses voltage division properties. When only one digital input bit is HIGH (V
i

) and all others are LOW (0V), the network effectively divides V
i

by powers of 2 (e.g., V
i

/2,V
i

/4,V
i

/8,V
i

/16) depending on the position of the HIGH bit.

Each digital input bit (D, C, B, A) is assigned a "level of importance" or an "analog equivalent numeral."
Bit A (LSB - Least Significant Bit) = 1
Bit B = 2
Bit C = 4
Bit D (MSB - Most Significant Bit) = 8
The output analog voltage is a summation of the contributions from each HIGH input bit, scaled by its respective weight.
Formula: For a 4-bit R/2R DAC, the analog output voltage (Vo ) is given by:
V o=(D+C+B+A) 16V i
​(Equation 5-3, Page 29)
Where D, C, B, A are either 1 (if the bit is HIGH) or 0 (if the bit is LOW). Vi
is the reference input voltage.
Example: For digital input 1010 (D=1,C=0,B=1,A=0) and Vi

=10V, Vo =(8+0+2+0) 16 10V

=10× 16/10V=6.25V. (Page 30)

"Flow Meters and Gauges”

1. Strain Gauge
Definition: A passive transducer that uses the variation in electrical resistance in wires or semiconductors to sense the strain (elongation or compression per
unit length) produced by a force on the wires. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 1]

Construction:

Resistance Wire Gauge:

Unbonded: Consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulating medium, connected in a bridge circuit. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and
gauges.pdf, page 2]

Bonded: A fine wire element (approx. 25μm) looped back and forth on a carrier (base) or mounting plate, which is cemented to the member undergoing stress.
It's covered with a thin material (paper, bakelite, teflon) for mechanical protection and uniform stress distribution. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf,
page 2]

Semiconductor Strain Gauge: Uses semiconductor material, known for having a very high gauge factor (up to 50 times higher than wire strain gauges). [cite:
uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 8]

Diagram:

Unbonded Strain Gauge:

Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge: Page 4, showing the fine wire grid and leads. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 4]
Working Principle:

When a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its length increases or decreases, and its cross-sectional area changes. This directly alters its electrical
resistance.

Some conductors also exhibit the piezo-resistive effect, where their resistivity changes under strain.

When a gauge is subjected to positive stress, its length increases and cross-section decreases, leading to an increase in resistance.

The change in resistance is typically measured (e.g., using a Wheatstone bridge) to determine strain, which serves as an index of pressure or stress. [cite:
uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 1]

Formula:

Resistance of a conductor: R=ρ× Al

(where ρ is resistivity, l is length, A is cross-sectional area). [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 5]

Strain (σ): σ= l/Δl

(change in length divided by original length). [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 4]

Gauge Factor (GF or K): K=

(Δl/l)
(ΔR/R)

(ratio of fractional change in resistance to fractional change in length). [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 4]

Derived Gauge Factor: K=1+2μ (where μ is Poisson's ratio). [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 7]

2. Pressure Switches
Definition: A pressure-sensitive electrical switching device used to regulate operations by closing an electrical contact when a certain set pressure (or
pressure rise/fall) has been reached. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 8]

Construction: Typically comprises a pressure sensing device (like a diaphragm or Bourdon tube) that deforms or displaces proportionally to the applied
pressure. This resulting motion actuates internal switch contacts. They can incorporate mercury switches or snap-action (micro) switches. [cite:
uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 9]

Diagram: No specific diagram is provided for the pressure switch itself, but its functional components are described.

Working Principle:

The pressure sensing element responds to changes in fluid pressure.

When the pressure reaches a predefined low point or a pre-set maximum, the deformation/displacement of the sensing element triggers the opening or
closing of electrical contacts.

This electrical switching action then controls external devices, such as starting or stopping an air compressor, or operating a relay.

Formula: N/A (Functional switching device, not a direct measurement transducer with a specific formula).

3. Magnetic Flow Meters

Definition: Devices used for the measurement of flow-rates of fluids (liquid) based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. They measure volumetric
flow rate (m
3
/s) or mass flow rate (kg/s). [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 10]

Construction:

Consists of an electrically insulated or non-conducting pipe through which the fluid flows.

A pair of electrodes are mounted opposite each other on the pipe wall, flush with the inside.

Magnetic coils are mounted around the pipe, generating a magnetic field mutually perpendicular to the axis of the flow meter body and the plane of the
electrodes.
The length 'L' is the distance between the electrodes and equals the pipe diameter. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 11]

Diagram: Page 12 provides a diagram of a magnetic flow meter, showing the pipe, electrodes, magnetic coils, and the induced voltage (L). [cite:
uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 12]

Working Principle:

Based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which states that when a conductor moves through a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the
conductor.

In a magnetic flow meter, the flowing fluid acts as the conductor.

The induced voltage (EMF) detected by the electrodes is directly proportional to the relative velocity of the flowing liquid and the strength of the magnetic
field.

This induced voltage is then converted to a volumetric flow rate measurement. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 10-11]

Formula:

Induced voltage (E): E=C×B×L×V (where C is a dimensional constant, B is magnetic flux in Wb/m
2
, L is length of conductor/fluid in field in m, V is fluid velocity in m/s). [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 10]

Volumetric flow rate (Q): Q=V×A (where A is the cross-sectional area of the flowmeter). [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 11]

Relationship for Flowmeter: For a given flowmeter, Q=K×E (where K=

CBL
A

is a constant). This means the induced voltage is directly proportional to the volumetric flow rate. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 11]

4. Tachogenerators (Measurement of Rotational Speed)

Definition: Devices used for the measurement of rotational speed or angular velocity. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 12]

Construction: The armature of the tachogenerator is mechanically coupled to the machine whose speed is to be measured. This armature is placed within a
permanent magnetic field. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 13]

Diagram: Page 12 displays a basic diagram of a tachogenerator, showing the armature, N and S poles of a magnet, and output to a moving coil voltmeter.
[cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 12]

Working Principle:

As the shaft of the machine rotates, the armature of the tachogenerator revolves within the fixed magnetic field.

This rotation causes a change in magnetic flux linkage through the armature coils.

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, an electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the armature.

This induced EMF is directly proportional to the product of the magnetic flux and the speed of rotation. The output voltage is measured to determine the
speed. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 13]

Formula:

Induced EMF (EA ): EA=kϕω (where k is a constant, ϕ is magnetic flux, and ω is angular speed). [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 13]

5. Hall Effect Sensor (for Liquid Level Measurement)

Definition: A Hall-effect sensor that utilizes the Hall effect principle to detect position, displacement, and proximity, commonly applied in liquid/fluid level
measurement. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 14]

Construction: For liquid level measurement, a small permanent magnet is attached to a float. This float moves with the liquid level. The Hall sensor is typically
fixed, and the distance between the magnet and the sensor changes as the level varies. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 14]
Diagram: Page 14 illustrates a Hall sensor setup for fuel level measurement in an automobile tank, showing the float with a magnet, the Hall sensor, and the
output. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 14]

Working Principle (Hall Effect):

The Hall effect states that when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the direction of electric current flowing through a conductor (or semiconductor),
an electric field (Hall voltage) is set up perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field.

In liquid level sensing, as the float (with magnet) moves with the liquid level, the magnetic field strength sensed by the stationary Hall sensor changes.

This change in magnetic field strength directly results in a change in the magnitude of the Hall voltage output, which serves as a measure of the liquid level.
[cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 14]

Formula:

Hall Voltage (V H ): VH= bR HBI

(where RH is the Hall coefficient, B is magnetic field strength, I is current carried by the specimen, and b is the width of the specimen along the magnetic
field). [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 14]

6. Proximity Sensors (General and Eddy Current Type)

Definition: A proximity sensor is an element that changes its state (e.g., ON/OFF) or produces an analog signal when an object is brought close to it, usually
without physical contact. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.2pdf, page 15]

Construction (Eddy Current Type): Consists of a coil supplied with an alternating current, which generates an alternating magnetic field.

Diagram: No specific diagram is provided for the sensor itself in the notes.

Working Principle (Eddy Current Proximity Sensor):

When a conductive (metal) object enters the alternating magnetic field of the coil, eddy currents are induced within the object.

These induced eddy currents create their own magnetic field, which opposes and distorts the original magnetic field produced by the sensor coil.

This distortion leads to a change in the impedance of the sensor coil, and consequently, a change in the amplitude of the alternating current flowing through
the coil.

This detected change can be used to trigger a switch at a preset level.

Applications: Used for the detection of non-magnetic but conductive materials, often for security purposes. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page
15]

Formula: N/A (Working principle described, no specific mathematical formula provided).

7. Infrared Detectors (Passive Infrared - PIR Sensors)

Definition: An electronic device that detects infrared (IR) radiation emitted by objects in its surroundings to sense heat or motion. Passive Infrared (PIR)
sensors specifically detect IR radiation without emitting any themselves. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 16]

Construction: These sensors are typically made of pyroelectric materials (natural or artificial) that generate an electric voltage when heated or cooled. These
materials are integrated into a small circuit board. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 16]

Diagram: No specific diagram is provided in the notes.

Working Principle:

All objects emit some form of thermal radiation in the infrared spectrum.

When an object with a different temperature (and thus a different IR signature) moves into the sensor's field of view, it causes a change in the heat detected
by the pyroelectric material.

This change in temperature of the pyroelectric elements generates a temporary electric voltage.

This voltage signal is then processed to detect motion or presence.

Applications: Used as motion detectors (e.g., for alarms), and as infrared proximity sensors for tracking large moving objects like boats or aircraft to alert
drivers. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 16]

Formula: N/A (Detection principle, no specific formula).

8. Pyroelectricity (Related Topic to IR Detectors)

Definition: The ability of certain crystalline materials to generate a temporary voltage when they are heated or cooled. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and
gauges.pdf, page 17]

Construction: Involves specific crystalline structures (like Tourmaline) where changes in temperature modify the positions of atoms, leading to a change in the
material's polarization.
Diagram: Page 17 shows a conceptual diagram illustrating the three states of energy (Kinetic, Electrical, Thermal) and indicating the pyroelectric effect
produces no kinetic energy. [cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 17]

Working Principle:

A change in temperature modifies the atomic positions within the crystal structure.

This results in a change in the material's electrical polarization.

This polarization change gives rise to a temporary voltage across the crystal.

This effect is distinct from thermoelectricity, where a permanent voltage is produced due to a sustained temperature difference between sides of a material.
[cite: uploaded:flow meters and gauges.pdf, page 17]

Formula: N/A (Fundamental material property).