EC-1(Measurement and Instrumentation)Unit 1 Notes (I)
Amarendra Narayan
MPHYEC – 1F Measurement and Instrumentation (5 Credits)
Course Objectives:
1. To make the student familiarize with the basics of experimental physics.
2. To make the student familiarize with the basics of electronics.
3. To enable the student to explore the concepts involved in the oscillators.
4. To allow the student to understand the fundamentals of instruments involved
Unit 1: Basic Principles
Measuring Instruments: Accuracy, precision, sensitivity and resolution; Scale, standards and
calibration; Uncertainties of measurements and errors, propagation of errors, statistical
treatment of random errors, Distribution functions their derivation and properties
INSTRUMENTATION
Instrumentation is the science and technology of complete systems with which physical
quantities are measured so as to obtain data which are transmitted to recording or display
devices or to control devices.
Introduction: Measurement has always occupied an important place in Science and
Technology. The advances of Science can be correlated with the improvements in
Measurement technology. Many of the major breakthroughs in our Knowledge took place in an
attempt to explain small discrepencies between theoretically predicted values and
experimentally obtained ones as a result of better instrumentation. Instrumentation deals with
design and construction of modern instruments built for various types of measurements.
Measurement of any physical quantity is based on some physical phenomenon in which a
feature of the measuring device is used for comparing the value of the property of the system
under consideration with a standard value. So depending on the nature of measurement, the
measuring instrument can be mechanical, optical, electrical, etc. In recent time, practically All
modern instruments have been made electronics based because such instruments have several
advantages compared to the traditional measuring instruments. Following are some of the
advantages of electronic measuring instruments.
(i) It is possible to design very sensitive as well as practically non-obstrucive instruments
because even very small signals output from sensors can be electronically amplified for
convenient recording or display.
(ii) An electronic signal can be easily processed for conversion to a useful and meaningful
form. The different mathematical operatins required can be carried out either on the
signals directly or processed digitally by attached microcontrollers or computers.
(iii) The measurement signals in electrical form cal be transmitted through short or long
distances as per need. The basic instrument can thus be physically separated from
processing devices as required. Thus the measurements by several devices can all be
displayed on a single panel for convenience.
(iv) Many measurements can be carried out rapidly or simultaneously in real time. The data
obtained can be processed sufficiently fast to be updated as soon as changes occur.
(v) Very small to very large values in measurands can be handled with good accuracy in
modern electronic instruments.
(vi) The processes for a large variety of systems and parameters can be handled by instruments
that are electronically very similar in principle.
(vii) As digital technology has improved, more and more digital electronic instruments are
being manufactured which have better capabilities and user interface.
Block Diagram of a generalized measuring system:
The figure below depicts a block diagram of a typical modern instrument.
Components of the measuring system:
Following is a brief description of different components of an electronic measuring system:
1. Measurand: Measurand is a physical or electrical quantity that the instrument has to
measure. Examples of physical Measurands are Position, Displacement, Acceleration,
Temperature, Intensity of Light, strain, Magnetic Field, etc. Examples of Electrical
Measurands are Voltage, Current, Frequency of A.C., Resistance, etc. For making any
measurement, we must also know the measurand characteristics. These include the
nature of measurand and the range of values that the measurand is suppose to cover
during the measurement.
2. Transducer: A transducer is a device that converts the measurand into an electrical
parameter that can be utilized in the instrument for further processing. Such a
parameter can be a voltage, a current, resistance or some other type of signal.
3. Signal processing or conditioning element: The output of the transducer is an electrical
signal. Before it can be displayed, or transmitted to the next stage, it has to be further
processed so as to convert it into a form that is required by the next stage. This activity
is called signal conditioning. The electronic circuits that carry out this function are called
signal processing or signal conditioning elements.
4. Data transmission element: The transducer and associated circuits are often physically
separated from the front end circuits where the information is displayed or recorderd.
So suitable arrangement has to be made so that the signal reaches its destination
without loss of information. Data may have to be sent through a carrier signal using wire
or radio link or converted into digital form for reliable transmission. The related
circuitary is termed as Data transmission element.
5. Data presentation element: The signal may have to be further processed before it is
displayed, or recorder for further analysis, or used for control purposes. The data
presentation element processes the signal to make it compatible with the relevant front
end devices (Recorder, Display device, Controller, Computer, etc.)
6. End element: At the front end there can be some display device, recorder, or a
computer or microcontroller based interface which communicates the information to
the user in a human interpretable format. Alternately, it can supply this information in a
digital form suitable for computer based applications.
Basic Terminology
Measurement: Measurement is a process through which the magnitude of a physical quantity
(property that can be quantified) is obtained for a particular system by comparison with a
standard magnitude of that quantity called “unit“.
Measurand: The physical quantity that we want to measure is called the measurand.
Measuring Instrument: A measuring Instrument is a device or a setup using which we carry out
a measurement. Very few measurements are done directly. The modern trend is to convert the
physical quantity to be measured into an electrical parameter through some transducer and
then process that electrical signal to get the measurement value. In instrumentation we study
ifference how this is done.
Static and Dynamic characteristics of an instrument: Characteristics of an instrument refer to
its salient properties or features. The static characteristics of a measuring instrument are its
characteristic features as obtained under steady state condition or when the instrument settles
down. Dynamic characteristics are related to how the instrument copes with situations where
the measurand changes value with real time.
Static characteristics: Some of the important static characteristics are described below.
Accuracy: The exact value of any continuous variable cannot be determined through
measurement. This is mainly because of the limitations of the instrument which can make
comparison only to a certain limit. Accuracy of any measurement is an estimate of the
closeness of a measured value to the exact value. When we make any measurement and
express the measured value, we also include an estimate of the accuracy of the measurement.
For example, when we write T = 80oC 0.5oC we mean that the measured temperature can lie
between 79.5oC and 80.5oC. The mean value is and 80oC and the accuracy is 0.5oC. The
accuracy of an instrument can also be expressed as percentage. Then it denotes percentage the
corresponding full scale range. Suppose the range of a particular thermometer is 0 to 100 oC.
Then a reading of 80oC 0.5% will mean an accuracy of 0.5% of 100oC i.e. 0.5oC.
Precision: Precision is a term that describes an instrument’s degree of freedom from random
errors. If a large number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a high precision
instrument then the spread of readings will be very small. Such an instrument will be able to
discriminate or distinguish between two close-by values with better reliability. The repeatability
of an instrument refers to the closeness of measured values when same measurement is
repeated over short period of time. Another related term is reproducibility. Reproducibility
describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are changes in the
method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of use and time
of measurement.
Tolerance: Tolerance is not a property of measuring instrument but is a term that is closely
related to accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some supplied
value. Tolerance is generally provided by the manufactures and expresses the maximum
deviation of the actual value from the quoted value. For instance, if we have a 1.5 KΩ resistor
whose tolerance is 10% then its value can be expected to lie within 10% of 1.5 KΩ. Sometimes
the accuracy of an instrument is quoted as a tolerance figure.
Span: The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a
quantity that the instrument is designed to measure.
Linearity: In most of the instruments the output reading is linearly proportional to the quantity
being measured. The non-linearity of the instrument is then defined as the maximum deviation
of any of the output readings from a linear function (straight line fit: y = m x + c). Non-linearity
is usually expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading.
Sensitivity: The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument output
that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity is
the ratio of scale deflection and the value of measurand producing this deflection. The
sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope of the straight line drawn between the scale
deflections (y axis) and the corresponding measurand values (x axis).
Threshold: If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, the instrument output
reading is detectable only when the input reaches a certain minimum level. This minimum level
of input is known as the threshold of the instrument.
Resolution: The resolution of an instrument refers to the minimum change in the measurand
that will produce distinctly different reading in the instrument.
Sensitivity to disturbance: The specifications of an instrument are valid only under controlled
environmental conditions (temperature, pressure etc.) These standard ambient conditions are
usually defined in the instrument specification. When variations in these conditions occur,
some of the static instrument characteristics change. The sensitivity to disturbance is a measure
of the magnitude of this change. The environmental changes affect instruments mainly in two
main ways: zero drift and sensitivity drift. Zero drift is also known by the alternative term, bias.
Zero drift describes the situation when the zero reading of an instrument is modified through a
change in ambient conditions. This causes a constant error that appears over the full range of
measurement of the instrument. Zero drift is expressed in terms of zero drift coefficients, one
for each environmental parameter. Sensitivity drift (or scale factor drift) defines the amount by
which an instrument’s sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions change. It is
expressed in terms of sensitivity drift coefficients that define the amount of drift per unit
change in each environmental parameter that the instrument characteristics are sensitive to.
Hysteresis: In some instruments, the readings for the same magnitude of the measurand are
different when it is increasing and when it is decreasing. The reading appears to lag behind the
actual value as shown in the figure. This lagging behind is called hysteresis.
Dead space: Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over which there is no
change in output value. The instruments that show hysteresis also display dead space, as shown
in above Figure. Backlash error in gears is also an example of dead space error.
Dynamic characteristics: The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its
behavior between the time a measured quantity changes value and the time when the
instrument output attains a steady value in response. For a step change in measurand, the
response can be expressed as
where qi is the measured quantity, q0 is the output reading and a0 . . . an, b0 are constants.
Zero order instrument: If all the coefficients a1 . . . an other than a0 in the above equation are
assumed to be zero, then
a0q0 = b0qi and so q0 = b0qi/a0 = Kqi
where K is a constant known as the instrument sensitivity.
Any instrument that behaves according to the above equation is said to be of zero order type. If
there is a step change in the measured quantity at time t, the instrument output moves
immediately to the corresponding new value at the same time instant t.
Zero order response
First order instrument: If all the coefficients a2 . . . an except for a0 and a1 are assumed zero in
equation (1) then
If this equation is solved analytically, the output quantity q 0 in response to a step change in qi at
time t varies with time in the manner shown in Figure below. The time constant τ of the step
response is the time taken for the output quantity q 0 to reach 63% of its final value.
Second order Instrument:
Measurement Scale: Modern measuring instruments are based on electronics. The common
trend is to use some device (called sensor) that is sensitive to the physical parameter that we
want to measure and outputs an electrical signal that is a function of the required parameter.
This function can be linear or non linear depending on the nature of the sensing device. If we
know the functional relation between the measurand and the electrical signal that our device
outputs, then we can use this knowledge to obtain measurement value of the measurand when
we obtain a particular value for the electrical signal from the device. The relation that exists
between the measurand and the electrical parameter for the particular device is called the
measurement scale.
Measurement standards: For measuring any physical quantity (measurable property), we
require a unit in terms of which any measured value is expressed.
Measured value = number X unit (of the particular physical quantity)
A Fundamental principle of Scientific investigation is that the measured value is independent of
the unit used. Different units have been adopted for the same physical quantity (i.e. Length,
Mass, Time, etc.) at different times in different civilizations. Whatever be the unit adopted, the
process of measurement is expected to give a value that does not depend on the unit adopted.
Gradually the units have been standardized based on international agreement.
A Standard has been defined as an Object system or experiment that bears a well defined
verifiable relation with a unit of measurement of a physical quantity. Modern measurements
are defined in relationship to internationally standardized reference objects, which are used
under carefully controlled laboratory conditions to define the units of length, mass, electrical
potential, and other physical quantities.
S.I. Units: As of today, a uniform system of units has been adopted known as S.I. (Systeme
internationale). It is based on a choice of seven fundamental physical quantities (and two
auxiliary quantities). All other physical quantities as well as their units can be expressed in
terms of these seven by considering the Laws of Physics and definitions of those (derived)
quantities.
Table 1.1 Definitions of standard units
Physical Quantity Standard unit Definition
Length metre The length of path travelled by light in an interval of
1/299 792 458 seconds
Mass kilogram The mass of a platinum–iridium cylinder kept in the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures,
S`evres, Paris
Time second 9.192631770 d 109 cycles of radiation from
vaporized caesium-133 (an accuracy of 1 in 1012 or
1 second in 36 000 years)
Temperature kelvin The temperature difference between absolute zero
and the triple point of water is defined as 273.16
kelvin
Current ampere One ampere is the current flowing through two
infinitely long parallel conductors of negligible
cross-section placed 1 metre apart in a vacuum and
producing a force of 2 d 10_7 newtons per metre
length of conductor
Luminous candela One candela is the luminous intensity in a given
intensity direction from a source emitting monochromatic
radiation at a frequency of 540 terahertz (Hz d 1012)
and with a radiant density in that direction of 1.4641
mW/steradian. (1 steradian is the solid angle which,
having its vertex at the centre of a sphere, cuts off an
area of the sphere surface equal to that of a square
with sides of length equal to the sphere radius)
Matter mole The number of atoms in a 0.012 kg mass of
carbon-12
Table 1.2 Fundamental and derived SI units
(a) Fundamental units
Quantity Standard Unit Symbol
Length metre M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous Intensity Candela Cd
Matter mole Mol
(b) Supplementary Fundamental units
Quantity Standard Unit Symbol
Angle radian Rad
Solid Angle steradian Sr
(c) Derived units
Quantity Standard Unit Symbol
Area Square meter m2
Volume Cubic meter m3
Velocity Meter per second m/s
Acceleration Meter per second squared m/s2
Angular velocity Radian per second rad/s
Angular Acceleration Radian per second squared rad/s 2
Density Kilogram per cubic meter Kg/ m3
Specific Volume Cubic meter per kilogram m3/kg
Mass flow rate Kilogram per second Kg/s
Volume flow rate Cubic meter per second m3/s
Force Newton N (kg m/s2)
Pressure Newton per square meter, Pascal Pa (N/m2)
Torque Newton meter Nm
Momentum Kilogram meter per second Kg m/s
Moment of Inertia Kilogram meter squared Kg m 2
Kinematic viscosity Square meter per second m2/s
Dynamic viscosity Newton second per square meter N s/m 2
Work, Energy, Heat Joule J (N m)
Specific Energy Joule per cubic meter J/m3
Power Watt J/s
Thermal conductivity Watts per meter kelvin W/mK
Electrical Charge Coulomb Coul (As)
Voltage, emf, Pot. Diff. Volt V (W/A)
Electric Field Volt per meter V/m
Electric resistance Ohm Ω (V/A)
Electric capacitance Farad F (As/V)
Electric Inductance Henry H (Vs/A)
Electric Conductance Siemens S (A/V)
Resistivity Ohm meter Ωm
Permittivity Farad per meter F/m
Current density Ampere per square meter A/m 2
Magnetic Flux Weber Wb (Vs)
Magnetic Flux density Tesla T (Wb/m 2)
Frequency Hertz (Cycles per second) s-1
Luminous Flux Lumen lm (cd sr)
Luminance Candela per square meter cd/m 2
Illumination Lux lx (lm/m2)
Molar volume Cubic meter per mole m3/mol
Molarity Mole per kilogram Mol/kg
Molar energy Joule per mole J/mol
S.I. Prefixes: In many situations the S.I. Unit may be too big or too small for practical usage.
Then the units are scaled up or scaled down by attaching appropriate prefixes. These prefixes
are listed below.
Prefix Multiple symbol
Atto 10-18 a
Femto 10-15 f
Pico 10-12 p
Nano 10-9 n
Micro 10-6 μ
Milli 10-3 m
Centi 10-2 c
Deci 10-1 d
Deca 101 da
Hecto 102 h
Kilo 103 K
Mega 106 M
Giga 109 G
Tera 1012 T
Peta 1015 P
Hierarchy of standards: Although the S.I. units are well defined, it is not possible to have these
in day to day usage. So additional standards are required. The following types of standards have
been defined in order to maintain uniformity in magnitude as well as to meet widespread
needs.
(i) Primary Standards: These are devices that conform to the internationally agreed legal
specifications of the different fundamental units. The International Primary Kilogram is a
one kilogram mass of a platinum iridium alloy maintained by the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures (BIPM) in Sèvres, France. Currently the volt is defined in terms of the
output of a Josephson junction which bears a direct relationship to fundamental physical
constants. In 1983, the standard meter was redefined as the distance that Light travels in
vacuum during 1/299792458 of a second.
(ii) Secondary/Reference standards: The Primary standards are not very practical for
calibration work. So many major national measuring laboratories maintain secondary
reference standards that are very close approximations of primary reference standards.
These are periodically calibrated against the primary standards and each other.
(iii) Working standards: For day to day usage, people use standards that are easy to handle and
moderately accurate. These are replicas that have been verified in standard laboratories or
verified with other replicas certified by Standard laboratories. In India, the National Physical
Laboratory at New Delhi maintains the reference standards and verifies the working
standards.
Calibration: In any indirect measurement the measurand value has to be correlated with the
value of the transducer output so that correct measurement values are inferred. This is done by
help of some other instrument that is known to give accurate measurement. The process of
comparison with a standardized instrument is called calibration and is a very important step in
instrumentation. Calibration is also necessary from time to time to ascertain whether the
instrument parameters has drifted or not. This is quite possible because of aging effect.
Instrument Performance characteristics
In order to ascertain whether a particular instrument is suitable for given application, a
knowledge of its behavior is essential. The performance of the instrument is conveyed through
its performance characteristics. These can be divided broadly into the following categories.
(i) Measurand characteristics: This includes the range of values of the measurand over which
the instrument operates.
(ii) Electrical design characteristics: These characteristics usually include information such as
output levels, input and output impedances, grounding and insulation, and other
instrument characteristics
(iii) Static performance characteristics: The static characteristics of a measuring instrument are
its characteristic features as obtained under ideal condition when the instrument settles
down. Some of the important static characteristics have been discussed earlier.
(iv) Dynamic performance characteristics: The dynamic characteristics of a measuring
instrument are its characteristic features when the measurand undergoes rapid variations and
the instrument simultaneously tries to settle down. The dynamic characteristics have been
discussed earlier.
(v) Environmental characteristics: These refer to specifications related to external conditions
such as temperature, humidity under which the instrument is to be run and external
conditions such as shock, vibration, dust, heat, etc. To which the instrument might get
exposed during transport andhandling.
(vi) Reliability characteristics: This refers to the instrument behavior such as precision,
accuracy, repeatability, reproducibility, life, and exposure to harsh operating conditions.
