Chapter 06
Cellular Respiration: Obtaining Energy from
Food
The Cells of Your Brain Burn Through a
Quarter Pound of Glucose Each Day
110 g
PowerPoint® Lectures created by Edward J. Zalisko, Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, and
Jane B. Reece
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Biology and Society
Getting the Most Out of Your Muscles
• For many endurance athletes(마라톤 선수), the rate at which oxygen (O2) is provided
to working muscles is the limiting factor in their performance.
• Your aerobic capacity is
– the maximum rate at which O2 can be taken in and used by your muscle cells and
– therefore the most strenuous exercise that your body can maintain aerobically.
• If you work even harder and exceed your aerobic capacity,
– the demand for oxygen in your muscles will outstrip your body’s ability to deliver it,
– metabolism then becomes anaerobic, and
– your muscle cells switch to an “emergency
mode” in which they
break down glucose very inefficiently
and
produce lactic acid as a by-product.
근육약화, 구토, 혼수상태
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Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling in the Biosphere
• All life requires energy.
– In almost all ecosystems on Earth, this energy originates from the sun.
– During photosynthesis, plants convert the energy of sunlight to the chemical
energy of sugars and other organic molecules.
– All animals depend on this conversion for food and more.
Producers and Consumers
• Plants and other autotrophs (“self-feeders”) are organisms that make all their own
organic matter(유기물질) from nutrients that are entirely inorganic(무기물):
– carbon dioxide (𝐶𝑂2) from the air and water (H2O) and
– minerals from the soil.
• Heterotrophs (other-feeders)
– include humans and other animals and
– cannot make organic molecules from inorganic ones.
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• Most ecosystems depend entirely on photosynthesis for food.
• Biologists refer to
– plants and other autotrophs as producers and
– heterotrophs, in contrast, as consumers, because they obtain their food by eating
plants or by eating animals that have eaten plants.
Checkpoint: What chemical ingredients do plants require from the environment to
synthesize their own food? CO 2, HH2O,
(CO2, 2O, and soil minerals
soil minerals)
Producers and Consumers Copyright © 2019 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
Chemical Cycling between Photosynthesis and Cellular
Respiration
• The chemical ingredients for photosynthesis are 𝑪𝑶𝟐 and H2O.
– 𝐶𝑂2 passes from the air into a plant via tiny pores.
– H2O is absorbed from the soil by the plant’s roots.
• Inside leaf cells, chloroplasts use
light energy to rearrange the atoms of
these ingredients to produce sugars,
most importantly glucose (C6H12O6),
and other organic molecules. A by-
product of photosynthesis is oxygen
gas (O2).
Energy Flow and Chemical
Cycling in Ecosystems
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• Cellular respiration uses O2 to convert the energy stored in the chemical bonds of
sugars to another source of chemical energy called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
• In plants and animals, the production of ATP during cellular respiration occurs mainly in
mitochondria.
• The waste products of cellular respiration are 𝑪𝑶𝟐 and H2O, the very same ingredients
used for photosynthesis.
• Plants usually make more organic molecules than they need for fuel. This photosynthetic
surplus
– provides material for the plant to grow or
– can be stored, as starch in potatoes, for example.
Checkpoint: What is misleading about the following statement? “Plants perform
photosynthesis, whereas animals perform cellular respiration.”
:10 million ATP molecules per second to power one active muscle cell
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Cellular Respiration: Aerobic Harvest of Food
Energy How Breathing is Related to
Cellular Respiration
• Cellular respiration is
– aerobic harvesting of chemical energy from
organic fuel molecules,
– the main way that chemical energy is
harvested from food and converted to ATP,
and
– an aerobic process—it requires oxygen.
• Cellular respiration requires that a cell exchange
two gases with its surroundings.
– The cell takes in oxygen in the form of the
gas O2.
– It gets rid of waste as 𝐶𝑂2.
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An Overview of Cellular Respiration
• All living organisms depend on transformations of energy and matter.
• Cellular respiration
– consists of many chemical steps using a specific enzyme to catalyze each
reaction,
– constitutes one of the most important metabolic pathways for nearly every
eukaryotic cell, and
– provides the energy these cells need to maintain the functions of life.
An Overview of Cellular Respiration
3 main stages
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• Many chemical reactions in cellular respiration can be grouped into three main stages:
1. glycolysis, 2. citric acid cycle, 3. electron transport(ETC).
1. During glycolysis, glucose is split into two
molecules of pyruvic acid in cytoplasm.
2. Citric acid cycle (also called Krebs cycle)
completes the breakdown of glucose to
𝐶𝑂2. The enzymes for the citric acid cycle
are dissolved in the fluid within
mitochondria.
*Glycolysis and citric acid cycle generate a
small amount of ATP directly and much matrix
more ATP indirectly, via reactions that
transfer electrons from fuel molecules to
NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide).
e- + NAD+ NADH
6C 2x3C
matrix ETC(membrane)
*NADH acts as a shuttle carrying high-
energy electrons from one area of the cell to
another.
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A Road Map for Cellular Respiration
From WIKIPEDIA
3. Electron transport.
ETC
– Electrons are finally combined with
oxygen to form water.
– Proteins and other molecules for electron
transport chains are embedded within the
inner membrane of the mitochondria.
– Electron transport from NADH to oxygen
releases the energy your cells use to
make most of their ATP.
• The overall equation for cellular respiration shows that the atoms of the reactant
molecules glucose and oxygen are rearranged to form the products 𝐶𝑂2 and H2O.
– The main function of cellular respiration is to generate ATP for cellular work.
– The process can produce around 32 ATP molecules for each glucose molecule
consumed.
Checkpoint: Which stages of cellular respiration take place in the mitochondria? Which
stage takes place outside the mitochondria?
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The Three Stages of Cellular Respiration
Stage 1: Glycolysis
• During glycolysis glucose molecule is split in half to form two molecules of pyruvic acid.
– This initial split requires an energy “investment” of two ATP molecules per glucose (1).
– Three-carbon molecules then donate high-energy electrons to NAD+, forming NADH. (2)
– Glycolysis also generates four ATP molecules.
– Glycolysis thus produces a net gain of two molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose.
2 NADH
2 ATP
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Glycolysis
Stage 2: The Citric Acid Cycle
• Pyruvic acid must be converted to a form the citric acid cycle can use.
1. Pyruvic acid loses a carbon as 𝐶𝑂2, generating acetic acid (two carbon molecules).
2. Electrons are stripped from these molecules and transferred to NAD+, forming
more NADH.
3. Finally, each acetic acid is attached to coenzyme A (𝐶𝑜𝐴) to form acetyl 𝐶𝑜𝐴.
2 NADH
To escort
3C
2C
The Link Between Glycolysis and the Citric Acid Cycle:
the Conversion of Pyruvic Acid to Acetyl 𝐶𝑜𝐴
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• The citric acid cycle finishes extracting the energy of sugar by dismantling the acetic
acid molecules all the way down to 𝐶𝑂2.
1. Acetic acid joins a four-carbon acceptor molecule to form a six-carbon product
called citric acid (for which the cycle is named).
2. For every acetic acid molecule that enters the cycle as fuel, two 𝑪𝑶𝟐 molecules
eventually exit as a waste product. Along the way, the citric acid cycle harvests
energy from the fuel.
6C
Fuel
2C
Waste product
Energy
4C
(recycle)
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The Citric Acid Cycle
3. Some of the energy is used to produce ATP directly.
4. However, the cycle captures much more energy in the form of NADH and
5. a second, closely related electron carrier called FADH2.
6. All the carbon atoms that entered the cycle as fuel are accounted for as 𝐶𝑂2
exhaust, and the four-carbon acceptor molecule is recycled.
Stage 3: Electron Transport
• During cellular respiration, the electrons gathered from food
molecules gradually “fall,” losing energy at each step.
– Electrons are transferred from glucose to NAD+.
– This electron transfer converts NAD+ to NADH.
– NADH releases two electrons that enter an electron
transport chain(ETC), series of electron carriers.
With each exchange, the electron gives up a bit of energy.
• Overall effect of all this transfer of electrons during
cellular respiration is a “downward” trip for electrons
– from glucose, to NADH, to an electron
transport chain (ETC), and to oxygen.
Cellular Respiration Illustrated
Using a Hard-Hat Analogy Copyright © 2019 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved
The Role of Oxygen in Harvesting Food Energy
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• The molecules of electron transport chains are built into the inner membranes of
mitochondria.
• Because these membranes are highly folded, their large surface area can
accommodate thousands of copies of the electron transport chain—a good example
of how biological structure fits function.
• The energy stored by electron transport behaves something like the water behind a
dam.
The Mitochondrion: Site of Cellular Respiration
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• Each of these miniature machines, called an ATP synthase, is constructed from
proteins built into the inner mitochondrial membrane, adjacent to the proteins of the
electron transport chains.
• Figure 6.10 shows a simplified view of how the energy previously stored in NADH and
FADH2 can now be used to generate ATP.
• Poison: Cyanide (R-C≡N, 청산가리) blocks ETC and kills organism.
Proton pumping
Proton
ETC Spins
I III IV Poison
Cyanide
(Energy)
Pull electron
How Electron Transport Drives ATP Synthase Machines
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The Results of Cellular Respiration
• Cellular respiration can generate up to 32 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose.
• Glucose to carrier molecules and ultimately to oxygen
A Summary of ATP Yield During Cellular Respiration
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• Respiration is a versatile metabolic furnace that can “burn” many other kinds of food
molecules.
• Figure 6.12 diagrams some metabolic routes for the use of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins as fuel for cellular respiration.
• The interplay between these
pathways provides a clear
example of the theme of system
interactions; in this case, all of
these interactions contribute to
maintaining a balanced
metabolism.
Cellular Respiration
(metabolic furnace)
Energy From Food
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Fermentation: Anaerobic Harvest of Food Energy
• Some of your cells can work for short periods without oxygen. This anaerobic (“without
oxygen”) harvest of food energy is called fermentation. Fermentation relies on
glycolysis, the first stage of cellular respiration.
• Glycolysis does not require O2 but does produce two ATP molecules for each glucose
molecule broken down to pyruvic acid.
Fermentation in Human Muscle Cells
• To harvest food energy during glycolysis, NAD+ must be present to receive electrons.
– However, this recycling of NAD+ cannot occur under anaerobic conditions
because there is no O2. Instead, NADH disposes of electrons by adding them to
pyruvic acid produced by glycolysis, producing a waste product, lactic acid.
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Fermentation: Producing Lactic Acid
The Process of Science
What Causes Muscle Burn?
• Background: What causes muscles to burn after hard
exercise? This question was investigated by one of the
founders of the field of exercise science, a British
biologist named A.V. Hill, who won a 1922 Nobel Prize for
his investigations of muscle contraction.
‘Production of heat and mechanical work in muscle’
• Hill knew that muscles produce lactic acid under
anaerobic conditions. In 1929, Hill developed a technique
for electrically stimulating dissected frog muscles in a
laboratory solution.
• Method:
– Hill showed that when lactic acid could not diffuse away from muscle tissue,
muscle performance declined.
– When lactic acid could diffuse away from the muscle tissue, muscle performance
improved significantly.
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A. V. Hill’s 1929 Apparatus for Measuring Muscle Fatigue (근육피로)
‘anaerobic’
Muscle
performance
Lactic acid
lactic acid fermentation in muscle cell
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• Results: Gradually, however, evidence that contradicted Hill’s results began to
accumulate.
– The effect that Hill demonstrated did not appear to occur at human body
temperature.
– Further, certain individuals who are unable to accumulate lactic acid have muscles
that fatigue more rapidly, the opposite of what is expected.
– Some research indicates that increased levels of other ions may be to blame.
– Therefore, the cause of muscle fatigue remains hotly debated.
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Fermentation in Microorganisms
• Yeast and some other organisms can survive with or without O2.
• Wastes from fermentation can be ethyl alcohol, lactic acid, or other compounds,
depending on the species. Dry wines?
beer and champagne bubble Sweet wine?
Fermentation: Producing Ethyl Alcohol
alcoholic fermentation used in the food and beverage industry
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Evolution Connection: The Importance of Oxygen
• Aerobic and anaerobic respiration start with glycolysis. Glycolysis is thus the universal
energy-harvesting process of life.
• The role of glycolysis in respiration and fermentation has an evolutionary basis.
• Between 3.5 and 2.7 billion years ago, before significant levels of oxygen were
present in Earth’s atmosphere, ancient prokaryotes probably used glycolysis to make
ATP and generated ATP exclusively from glycolysis.
• The fact that glycolysis occurs in almost all organisms suggests that it evolved very
early in ancestors common to all the domains of life.
• The location of glycolysis within the cell also implies great antiquity. The pathway does
not require any of the membrane-enclosed organelles of the eukaryotic cell, which
evolved more than a billion years after the prokaryotic cell.
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A Time Line of Oxygen and Life on Earth
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Copyright
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