Tab 2

🧬 What Is Cellular Respiration?

Cellular respiration is how our cells take food (like glucose) and turn it into energy (called ATP), which cells use
to do everything—move, grow, heal, think, etc.

🔥 Basic Idea:
Glucose (C6H12O6) + Oxygen (O2)→Carbon Dioxide (CO2) + Water (H2O) + Energy (ATP)\text{Glucose
(C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6\text{) + Oxygen (O}_2\text{)} \rightarrow \text{Carbon Dioxide (CO}_2\text{) + Water
(H}_2\text{O) + Energy (ATP)}

So, our cells take in sugar and oxygen and make energy, releasing CO₂ and water as waste.

🔄 The Four Main Stages of Cellular Respiration

1.​ Glycolysis – breaks down sugar​

2.​ Link Reaction (Pyruvate Oxidation) – prepares the sugar pieces​

3.​ Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) – pulls out more energy​

4.​ Electron Transport Chain & Chemiosmosis – uses all that energy to make lots of ATP​

Let’s go step-by-step, in simple language.

1️⃣ GLYCOLYSIS: Cutting Glucose in Half

📍 Happens in: Cytoplasm (the fluid in the cell)​
🌬️ Needs oxygen? No!
💡 What happens:
●​ One glucose (6-carbon sugar) is cut in half​

●​ You get 2 pyruvates (3-carbon molecules)​

●​ You also get a little energy: 2 ATP and 2 NADH (which carry electrons/energy)​

🧪 Simple Step Breakdown:

1.​ Glucose is “tagged” with a phosphate using 1 ATP (now called glucose-6-phosphate)​

2.​ It's turned into another form: fructose-6-phosphate​

3.​ Add another phosphate (using another ATP)​

4.​ It's split into two 3-carbon molecules: G3P​

 5.​ G3P gets oxidized → makes NADH​

6.​ Each G3P makes 2 ATP (via substrate-level phosphorylation)​

🧾 Output from Glycolysis:

●​ 2 Pyruvate​

●​ 2 ATP (net)​

●​ 2 NADH​

2️⃣ PYRUVATE OXIDATION (Link Reaction)

📍 Happens in: Mitochondrial matrix​
🌬️ Needs oxygen? Yes (indirectly)
💡 What happens:
●​ Each pyruvate from glycolysis goes into the mitochondria​

●​ It’s turned into Acetyl-CoA, which can enter the Krebs cycle​

●​ Along the way, CO₂ is released (we breathe this out!) and NADH is made​

🧾 Output (per glucose):

●​ 2 Acetyl-CoA​

●​ 2 NADH​

●​ 2 CO₂​

3️⃣ KREBS CYCLE (Citric Acid Cycle)

📍 Happens in: Mitochondrial matrix​
🌬️ Needs oxygen? Yes (indirectly)
💡 What happens:
●​ Acetyl-CoA (2-carbon) joins a 4-carbon molecule (oxaloacetate) to make citrate​

●​ This citrate is changed step by step​

●​ Energy is extracted at each step​

●​ Ends back at oxaloacetate, ready to go again​

🧪 Main Products per Turn (1 Acetyl-CoA):
●​ 3 NADH (high-energy carrier)​

●​ 1 FADH₂ (another energy carrier)​

●​ 1 ATP (or GTP)​

●​ 2 CO₂ (waste gas)​

🧾 Per glucose (2 cycles):

●​ 6 NADH​

●​ 2 FADH₂​

●​ 2 ATP​

●​ 4 CO₂​

4️⃣ ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC) & CHEMIOSMOSIS

📍 Happens in: Inner mitochondrial membrane​
🌬️ Needs oxygen? YES! This is where we use it
💡 What happens:
This is the energy factory.

●​ All NADH and FADH₂ made earlier drop off electrons​

●​ These electrons travel down Complexes I–IV​

●​ As they move, protons (H⁺) are pumped into a space, building a gradient (like a water dam)​

●​ At the end, electrons combine with O₂ and H⁺ to form water​

Then, the H⁺ rush back in through an enzyme called ATP Synthase, which makes ATP – this part is chemiosmosis

🧾 Output:
●​ About 28 ATP​

●​ H₂O (from O₂ + electrons + H⁺)​

⚗️ ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION / FERMENTATION

When there’s no oxygen, cells can’t do the ETC.
Instead, they do fermentation to keep making a little energy.

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation (muscles, bacteria)

●​ Pyruvate → Lactate (lactic acid)​

●​ No ATP made here, but allows glycolysis to keep going​

2. Alcoholic Fermentation (yeast)

●​ Pyruvate → Ethanol + CO₂​

●​ Used in brewing and baking​

📊 ENERGY SUMMARY (Per 1 Glucose)

Step ATP NADH FADH₂ From NADH/FADH₂

Glycolysis 2 2 0 5 (2 × 2.5)

Pyruvate Oxidation 0 2 0 5

Krebs Cycle 2 6 2 18 (6×2.5 + 2×1.5)

Total 4 10 2 ~32 ATP total

🗝️ KEY TERMS (Explained Simply)

●​ ATP – Energy money of the cell​

●​ Glucose – Simple sugar, main fuel​

●​ Pyruvate – Half of glucose, made in glycolysis​

●​ Acetyl-CoA – What goes into Krebs cycle​

●​ NADH/FADH₂ – Energy shuttles that carry electrons​

●​ Mitochondria – The cell’s power plant​

●​ ETC (Electron Transport Chain) – Where most energy is made​

●​ Chemiosmosis – How ATP Synthase makes ATP using H⁺ flow​

●​ Fermentation – Plan B for making ATP without oxygen​

Would you like this as a printable study guide or a diagram version too?
Tab 3
Here’s a thorough and detailed reviewer on Cellular Respiration based on your PDF, covering everything from the
document and expanding with clear explanations.

📘 Cellular Respiration: Full Reviewer

📌 Overview
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) into usable energy in the form of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate). It primarily occurs in eukaryotic cells and takes place in the mitochondria.

🔋 Purpose of Cellular Respiration

●​ To produce ATP, which powers cellular activities.​

●​ To release energy from food molecules like glucose.​

⚛️ Overall Reaction
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+Energy (ATP)\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2 \rightarrow 6\text{CO}_2
+ 6\text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{Energy (ATP)}

●​ Glucose is oxidized.​

●​ Oxygen is reduced.​

●​ Products: Carbon dioxide, water, and energy.​

🔄 Stages of Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis (Occurs in the Cytoplasm)

●​ Anaerobic (does not require oxygen).​

●​ Breaks down one glucose molecule (6C) into two pyruvate molecules (3C each).​

●​ Net gain: 2 ATP and 2 NADH.​

Key Steps:

●​ Glucose → 2 Pyruvate​

●​ ATP used: 2​

●​ ATP produced: 4 (net: +2)​

 ●​ NAD+ → NADH: 2 molecules​

2. Link Reaction (Pyruvate Oxidation)

●​ Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.​

●​ Each pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA.​

●​ CO₂ is released and NADH is produced.​

Summary:

●​ 2 Pyruvate → 2 Acetyl-CoA + 2 CO₂ + 2 NADH​

3. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

●​ Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.​

●​ Each Acetyl-CoA (2C) combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citric acid (6C).​

●​ A cycle of redox reactions regenerates oxaloacetate.​

For each glucose:

●​ ATP: 2​

●​ NADH: 6​

●​ FADH₂: 2​

●​ CO₂: 4​

4. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Oxidative Phosphorylation

●​ Occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.​

●​ NADH and FADH₂ donate electrons to the ETC.​

●​ Electrons pass through protein complexes → protons are pumped into the intermembrane space.​

●​ This creates a proton gradient (chemiosmosis).​

●​ Protons flow through ATP synthase, driving the production of ATP.​

End products:
 ●​ ~32-34 ATP​

●​ Water (as O₂ is the final electron acceptor, forming H₂O)​

📊 ATP Yield Summary (Per Glucose)

Step ATP Produced

Glycolysis 2

Krebs Cycle 2

ETC (Oxidative Phosph.) 32-34

Total 36-38

🧪 Fermentation (Anaerobic Respiration)

When oxygen is not available, cells perform fermentation to regenerate NAD⁺.

🧫 Types of Fermentation:
1.​ Lactic Acid Fermentation (muscle cells, some bacteria):​
Glucose→2 Lactic Acid+2 ATP\text{Glucose} \rightarrow \text{2 Lactic Acid} + \text{2 ATP}
2.​ Alcoholic Fermentation (yeast):​
Glucose→2 Ethanol+2 CO2+2 ATP\text{Glucose} \rightarrow \text{2 Ethanol} + \text{2 CO}_2 + \text{2 ATP}
●​ Much less efficient than aerobic respiration.​

●​ Only 2 ATP produced per glucose.​

🌿 Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration

Feature Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

Occurs in Chloroplasts Mitochondria

Energy Source Sunlight Glucose

Reactants CO₂, H₂O, light C₆H₁₂O₆, O₂

Products C₆H₁₂O₆, O₂ CO₂, H₂O, ATP

Type of Organism Autotrophs (plants, algae) All living organisms

End Purpose Store energy in glucose Release energy from

glucose

🧠 Key Terms & Definitions

 ●​ ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): Main energy currency of the cell.​

●​ NADH / FADH₂: Electron carriers used in the ETC.​

●​ Mitochondria: "Powerhouse of the cell" where most ATP is made.​

●​ Anaerobic: Does not require oxygen.​

●​ Aerobic: Requires oxygen.​

●​ Chemiosmosis: Movement of H⁺ ions through ATP synthase to produce ATP.​

●​ Redox Reactions: Reactions involving the transfer of electrons (oxidation & reduction).​

●​ Cristae: Folds in the inner mitochondrial membrane increasing surface area for ETC.​

Would you like this turned into a printable study sheet or mind map format?
Tab 4
Here's an expanded explanation and summary of the key sections (3.1 to 3.5) of the PDF on cellular respiration,
based on the file Biology 20 Notes - Unit B.pdf:

Section 3.1: Cellular Respiration Overview

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells extract energy from glucose to produce ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell.

Key Concepts:

●​ Reactants: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen (O₂).​

●​ Products: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), water (H₂O), and ATP.​

●​ Overall Reaction:​
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP)​

Importance:

●​ ATP powers all cellular activities (e.g., muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission).​

●​ The process is catabolic, meaning it breaks down molecules to release energy.​

Three Main Stages of Cellular Respiration:

1.​ Glycolysis​

2.​ Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)​

3.​ Electron Transport Chain (ETC)​

Section 3.2: Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration:

●​ Occurs in the presence of oxygen.​

●​ Produces up to 36 ATP per glucose molecule.​

●​ Takes place in mitochondria.​

●​ Includes glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.​

Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation):

●​ Occurs in the absence of oxygen.​

●​ Produces only 2 ATP per glucose molecule.​

 ●​ Occurs entirely in the cytoplasm.​

●​ Two types:​

○​ Lactic acid fermentation (in animals and some bacteria):​

Pyruvate is converted into lactic acid.​

○​ Alcoholic fermentation (in yeast):​

Pyruvate is converted into ethanol and CO₂.​

Comparison:

Feature Aerobic Anaerobic

Respiration Respiration

Oxygen requirement Yes No

ATP yield High (36-38 ATP) Low (2 ATP)

End products CO₂, H₂O Lactic acid or ethanol

Location in cell Mitochondria Cytoplasm

Section 3.3: Glycolysis and the Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Glycolysis:

●​ First step of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.​

●​ Occurs in the cytoplasm.​

●​ Glucose (6C) is broken into two pyruvate molecules (3C).​

●​ Produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose.​

Electron Transport Chain (ETC):

●​ Final stage of aerobic respiration.​

●​ Occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.​

●​ Electrons from NADH and FADH₂ travel through protein complexes, releasing energy to pump H⁺ ions into the
intermembrane space.​

●​ This creates a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to make ATP.​

●​ Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor, forming water.​

ATP Yield:

●​ Glycolysis: 2 ATP​

●​ Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP​

 ●​ ETC: ~32 ATP​
Total: ~36 ATP​

Section 3.4: Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

●​ Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.​

●​ Pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle.​

●​ Each turn of the cycle produces:​

○​ 3 NADH​

○​ 1 FADH₂​

○​ 1 ATP​

○​ 2 CO₂​

●​ For one glucose (2 pyruvates), the cycle turns twice, doubling the output.​

The high-energy electron carriers (NADH and FADH₂) then enter the ETC.

Section 3.5: Fermentation

●​ Alternative pathway when oxygen is not available.​

●​ Keeps glycolysis running by regenerating NAD⁺ from NADH.​

Types of Fermentation:

1.​ Lactic Acid Fermentation​

○​ Glucose → Pyruvate → Lactic Acid​

○​ Occurs in muscle cells during strenuous activity.​

2.​ Alcoholic Fermentation​

○​ Glucose → Pyruvate → Ethanol + CO₂​

○​ Used in brewing and baking.​

Diagrams and Summary Points

●​ Diagrams in the PDF show flowcharts of the cellular respiration pathway, highlighting where ATP, NADH,
FADH₂, and CO₂ are produced.​
 ●​ Key enzymes and transporters (like ATP synthase) are also shown.​

●​ One diagram illustrates the mitochondrion's role and structure, emphasizing the matrix and inner membrane.​

Would you like a summarized visual flowchart or diagram of the respiration process?
Tab 5
🧬 What Is Cellular Respiration?
Cellular respiration is how our cells take food (like glucose) and turn it into energy (called ATP), which cells use
to do everything—move, grow, heal, think, etc.

🔥 Basic Idea:
Glucose (C6H12O6) + Oxygen (O2)→Carbon Dioxide (CO2) + Water (H2O) + Energy (ATP)\text{Glucose
(C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6\text{) + Oxygen (O}_2\text{)} \rightarrow \text{Carbon Dioxide (CO}_2\text{) + Water
(H}_2\text{O) + Energy (ATP)}

So, our cells take in sugar and oxygen and make energy, releasing CO₂ and water as waste.

🔄 The Four Main Stages of Cellular Respiration

1.​ Glycolysis – breaks down sugar​

2.​ Link Reaction (Pyruvate Oxidation) – prepares the sugar pieces​

3.​ Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) – pulls out more energy​

4.​ Electron Transport Chain & Chemiosmosis – uses all that energy to make lots of ATP​

Let’s go step-by-step, in simple language.

1️⃣ GLYCOLYSIS: Cutting Glucose in Half

📍 Happens in: Cytoplasm (the fluid in the cell)​
🌬️ Needs oxygen? No!
💡 What happens:
●​ One glucose (6-carbon sugar) is cut in half​

●​ You get 2 pyruvates (3-carbon molecules)​

●​ You also get a little energy: 2 ATP and 2 NADH (which carry electrons/energy)​

🧪 Simple Step Breakdown:

1.​ Glucose is “tagged” with a phosphate using 1 ATP (now called glucose-6-phosphate)​

2.​ It's turned into another form: fructose-6-phosphate​

3.​ Add another phosphate (using another ATP)​

4.​ It's split into two 3-carbon molecules: G3P​

 5.​ G3P gets oxidized → makes NADH​

6.​ Each G3P makes 2 ATP (via substrate-level phosphorylation)​

🧾 Output from Glycolysis:

●​ 2 Pyruvate​

●​ 2 ATP (net)​

●​ 2 NADH​

2️⃣ PYRUVATE OXIDATION (Link Reaction)

📍 Happens in: Mitochondrial matrix​
🌬️ Needs oxygen? Yes (indirectly)
💡 What happens:
●​ Each pyruvate from glycolysis goes into the mitochondria​

●​ It’s turned into Acetyl-CoA, which can enter the Krebs cycle​

●​ Along the way, CO₂ is released (we breathe this out!) and NADH is made​

🧾 Output (per glucose):

●​ 2 Acetyl-CoA​

●​ 2 NADH​

●​ 2 CO₂​

3️⃣ KREBS CYCLE (Citric Acid Cycle)

📍 Happens in: Mitochondrial matrix​
🌬️ Needs oxygen? Yes (indirectly)
💡 What happens:
●​ Acetyl-CoA (2-carbon) joins a 4-carbon molecule (oxaloacetate) to make citrate​

●​ This citrate is changed step by step​

●​ Energy is extracted at each step​

●​ Ends back at oxaloacetate, ready to go again​

🧪 Main Products per Turn (1 Acetyl-CoA):
●​ 3 NADH (high-energy carrier)​

●​ 1 FADH₂ (another energy carrier)​

●​ 1 ATP (or GTP)​

●​ 2 CO₂ (waste gas)​

🧾 Per glucose (2 cycles):

●​ 6 NADH​

●​ 2 FADH₂​

●​ 2 ATP​

●​ 4 CO₂​

4️⃣ ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC) & CHEMIOSMOSIS

📍 Happens in: Inner mitochondrial membrane​
🌬️ Needs oxygen? YES! This is where we use it
💡 What happens:
This is the energy factory.

●​ All NADH and FADH₂ made earlier drop off electrons​

●​ These electrons travel down Complexes I–IV​

●​ As they move, protons (H⁺) are pumped into a space, building a gradient (like a water dam)​

●​ At the end, electrons combine with O₂ and H⁺ to form water​

Then, the H⁺ rush back in through an enzyme called ATP Synthase, which makes ATP – this part is chemiosmosis

🧾 Output:
●​ About 28 ATP​

●​ H₂O (from O₂ + electrons + H⁺)​

⚗️ ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION / FERMENTATION

When there’s no oxygen, cells can’t do the ETC.
Instead, they do fermentation to keep making a little energy.

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation (muscles, bacteria)

●​ Pyruvate → Lactate (lactic acid)​

●​ No ATP made here, but allows glycolysis to keep going​

2. Alcoholic Fermentation (yeast)

●​ Pyruvate → Ethanol + CO₂​

●​ Used in brewing and baking​

📊 ENERGY SUMMARY (Per 1 Glucose)

Step ATP NADH FADH₂ From NADH/FADH₂

Glycolysis 2 2 0 5 (2 × 2.5)

Pyruvate Oxidation 0 2 0 5

Krebs Cycle 2 6 2 18 (6×2.5 + 2×1.5)

Total 4 10 2 ~32 ATP total

🗝️ KEY TERMS (Explained Simply)

●​ ATP – Energy money of the cell​

●​ Glucose – Simple sugar, main fuel​

●​ Pyruvate – Half of glucose, made in glycolysis​

●​ Acetyl-CoA – What goes into Krebs cycle​

●​ NADH/FADH₂ – Energy shuttles that carry electrons​

●​ Mitochondria – The cell’s power plant​

●​ ETC (Electron Transport Chain) – Where most energy is made​

●​ Chemiosmosis – How ATP Synthase makes ATP using H⁺ flow​

●​ Fermentation – Plan B for making ATP without oxygen​

Would you like this as a printable study guide or a diagram version too?
Here’s a thorough and detailed reviewer on Cellular Respiration based on your PDF, covering everything from the
document and expanding with clear explanations.

📘 Cellular Respiration: Full Reviewer

📌 Overview
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) into usable energy in the form of ATP
(adenosine triphosphate). It primarily occurs in eukaryotic cells and takes place in the mitochondria.

🔋 Purpose of Cellular Respiration

●​ To produce ATP, which powers cellular activities.​

●​ To release energy from food molecules like glucose.​

⚛️ Overall Reaction
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+Energy (ATP)\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6\text{O}_2 \rightarrow 6\text{CO}_2
+ 6\text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{Energy (ATP)}

●​ Glucose is oxidized.​

●​ Oxygen is reduced.​

●​ Products: Carbon dioxide, water, and energy.​

🔄 Stages of Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis (Occurs in the Cytoplasm)

●​ Anaerobic (does not require oxygen).​

●​ Breaks down one glucose molecule (6C) into two pyruvate molecules (3C each).​

●​ Net gain: 2 ATP and 2 NADH.​

Key Steps:

●​ Glucose → 2 Pyruvate​

●​ ATP used: 2​

●​ ATP produced: 4 (net: +2)​

 ●​ NAD+ → NADH: 2 molecules​

2. Link Reaction (Pyruvate Oxidation)

●​ Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.​

●​ Each pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA.​

●​ CO₂ is released and NADH is produced.​

Summary:

●​ 2 Pyruvate → 2 Acetyl-CoA + 2 CO₂ + 2 NADH​

3. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

●​ Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.​

●​ Each Acetyl-CoA (2C) combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to form citric acid (6C).​

●​ A cycle of redox reactions regenerates oxaloacetate.​

For each glucose:

●​ ATP: 2​

●​ NADH: 6​

●​ FADH₂: 2​

●​ CO₂: 4​

4. Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Oxidative Phosphorylation

●​ Occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.​

●​ NADH and FADH₂ donate electrons to the ETC.​

●​ Electrons pass through protein complexes → protons are pumped into the intermembrane space.​

●​ This creates a proton gradient (chemiosmosis).​

●​ Protons flow through ATP synthase, driving the production of ATP.​

End products:
 ●​ ~32-34 ATP​

●​ Water (as O₂ is the final electron acceptor, forming H₂O)​

📊 ATP Yield Summary (Per Glucose)

Step ATP Produced

Glycolysis 2

Krebs Cycle 2

ETC (Oxidative Phosph.) 32-34

Total 36-38

🧪 Fermentation (Anaerobic Respiration)

When oxygen is not available, cells perform fermentation to regenerate NAD⁺.

🧫 Types of Fermentation:
1.​ Lactic Acid Fermentation (muscle cells, some bacteria):​
Glucose→2 Lactic Acid+2 ATP\text{Glucose} \rightarrow \text{2 Lactic Acid} + \text{2 ATP}
2.​ Alcoholic Fermentation (yeast):​
Glucose→2 Ethanol+2 CO2+2 ATP\text{Glucose} \rightarrow \text{2 Ethanol} + \text{2 CO}_2 + \text{2 ATP}
●​ Much less efficient than aerobic respiration.​

●​ Only 2 ATP produced per glucose.​

🌿 Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration

Feature Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

Occurs in Chloroplasts Mitochondria

Energy Source Sunlight Glucose

Reactants CO₂, H₂O, light C₆H₁₂O₆, O₂

Products C₆H₁₂O₆, O₂ CO₂, H₂O, ATP

Type of Organism Autotrophs (plants, algae) All living organisms

End Purpose Store energy in glucose Release energy from

glucose

🧠 Key Terms & Definitions

 ●​ ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): Main energy currency of the cell.​

●​ NADH / FADH₂: Electron carriers used in the ETC.​

●​ Mitochondria: "Powerhouse of the cell" where most ATP is made.​

●​ Anaerobic: Does not require oxygen.​

●​ Aerobic: Requires oxygen.​

●​ Chemiosmosis: Movement of H⁺ ions through ATP synthase to produce ATP.​

●​ Redox Reactions: Reactions involving the transfer of electrons (oxidation & reduction).​

●​ Cristae: Folds in the inner mitochondrial membrane increasing surface area for ETC.​

Would you like this turned into a printable study sheet or mind map format?Here's an expanded explanation and
summary of the key sections (3.1 to 3.5) of the PDF on cellular respiration, based on the file Biology 20 Notes - Unit
B.pdf:

Section 3.1: Cellular Respiration Overview

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells extract energy from glucose to produce ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), the energy currency of the cell.

Key Concepts:

●​ Reactants: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and oxygen (O₂).​

●​ Products: Carbon dioxide (CO₂), water (H₂O), and ATP.​

●​ Overall Reaction:​
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP)​

Importance:

●​ ATP powers all cellular activities (e.g., muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission).​

●​ The process is catabolic, meaning it breaks down molecules to release energy.​

Three Main Stages of Cellular Respiration:

1.​ Glycolysis​

2.​ Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)​

3.​ Electron Transport Chain (ETC)​

Section 3.2: Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration:

●​ Occurs in the presence of oxygen.​

●​ Produces up to 36 ATP per glucose molecule.​

●​ Takes place in mitochondria.​

●​ Includes glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.​

Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation):

●​ Occurs in the absence of oxygen.​

●​ Produces only 2 ATP per glucose molecule.​

●​ Occurs entirely in the cytoplasm.​

●​ Two types:​

○​ Lactic acid fermentation (in animals and some bacteria):​

Pyruvate is converted into lactic acid.​

○​ Alcoholic fermentation (in yeast):​

Pyruvate is converted into ethanol and CO₂.​

Comparison:

Feature Aerobic Anaerobic

Respiration Respiration

Oxygen requirement Yes No

ATP yield High (36-38 ATP) Low (2 ATP)

End products CO₂, H₂O Lactic acid or ethanol

Location in cell Mitochondria Cytoplasm

Section 3.3: Glycolysis and the Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Glycolysis:

●​ First step of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.​

●​ Occurs in the cytoplasm.​

●​ Glucose (6C) is broken into two pyruvate molecules (3C).​

●​ Produces 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose.​

Electron Transport Chain (ETC):

●​ Final stage of aerobic respiration.​

 ●​ Occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.​

●​ Electrons from NADH and FADH₂ travel through protein complexes, releasing energy to pump H⁺ ions into the
intermembrane space.​

●​ This creates a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to make ATP.​

●​ Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor, forming water.​

ATP Yield:

●​ Glycolysis: 2 ATP​

●​ Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP​

●​ ETC: ~32 ATP​

Total: ~36 ATP​

Section 3.4: Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

●​ Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix.​

●​ Pyruvate from glycolysis is converted to acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle.​

●​ Each turn of the cycle produces:​

○​ 3 NADH​

○​ 1 FADH₂​

○​ 1 ATP​

○​ 2 CO₂​

●​ For one glucose (2 pyruvates), the cycle turns twice, doubling the output.​

The high-energy electron carriers (NADH and FADH₂) then enter the ETC.

Section 3.5: Fermentation

●​ Alternative pathway when oxygen is not available.​

●​ Keeps glycolysis running by regenerating NAD⁺ from NADH.​

Types of Fermentation:

1.​ Lactic Acid Fermentation​

○​ Glucose → Pyruvate → Lactic Acid​

 ○​ Occurs in muscle cells during strenuous activity.​

2.​ Alcoholic Fermentation​

○​ Glucose → Pyruvate → Ethanol + CO₂​

○​ Used in brewing and baking.​

Diagrams and Summary Points

●​ Diagrams in the PDF show flowcharts of the cellular respiration pathway, highlighting where ATP, NADH,
FADH₂, and CO₂ are produced.​

●​ Key enzymes and transporters (like ATP synthase) are also shown.​

●​ One diagram illustrates the mitochondrion's role and structure, emphasizing the matrix and inner membrane.​

Would you like a summarized visual flowchart or diagram of the respiration process?
Tab 6
📌 What Is Cellular Respiration?
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) — the energy
currency of life. This powers everything from muscle movement to brain function.

🔥 Basic Equation:
Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) + Oxygen (O₂) → Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) + Water (H₂O) + Energy (ATP)​
Balanced:​
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ~36–38 ATP

🔄 Four Main Stages of Cellular Respiration

1️⃣ Glycolysis – "Cutting Glucose in Half"
●​ 📍 Location: Cytoplasm​
●​ 🌬️ Oxygen required? No (Anaerobic)​
●​ 💡 What Happens:​
○​ Glucose (6C) → 2 Pyruvate (3C)​

○​ Net gain: 2 ATP, 2 NADH​

●​ 🧪 Step-by-Step:​
○​ Glucose → Glucose-6-Phosphate (uses 1 ATP)​

○​ → Fructose-6-Phosphate​

○​ → Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphate (uses 1 ATP)​

○​ → 2 G3P (3C each)​

○​ Each G3P:​

■​ Produces 1 NADH​

■​ Produces 2 ATP​

●​ 🧾 Output (per glucose):​

○​ 2 Pyruvate​

○​ 2 ATP (net)​

○​ 2 NADH​

2️⃣ Pyruvate Oxidation (Link Reaction)

●​ 📍 Location: Mitochondrial Matrix​
●​ 🌬️ Oxygen required? Yes (indirectly)​
●​ 💡 What Happens:​
 ○​ Pyruvate enters mitochondria​

○​ → Acetyl-CoA + CO₂ + NADH​

●​ 🧾 Output (per glucose):​

○​ 2 Acetyl-CoA​

○​ 2 NADH​

○​ 2 CO₂​

3️⃣ Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

●​ 📍 Location: Mitochondrial Matrix​
●​ 🌬️ Oxygen required? Yes (indirectly)​
●​ 💡 What Happens:​
○​ Acetyl-CoA (2C) + Oxaloacetate (4C) → Citrate (6C)​

○​ Multiple redox reactions → CO₂, NADH, FADH₂, ATP​

●​ 🧪 Products (Per Turn):​

○​ 3 NADH​

○​ 1 FADH₂​

○​ 1 ATP​

○​ 2 CO₂​

●​ 🧾 Total Output (Per Glucose, 2 Turns):​

○​ 6 NADH​

○​ 2 FADH₂​

○​ 2 ATP​

○​ 4 CO₂​

4️⃣ Electron Transport Chain (ETC) & Chemiosmosis

●​ 📍 Location: Inner Mitochondrial Membrane​
●​ 🌬️ Oxygen required? YES (final electron acceptor)​
●​ 💡 What Happens:​
○​ NADH/FADH₂ donate electrons to ETC​

○​ Electrons move through Complex I-IV​

○​ Protons (H⁺) pumped into intermembrane space​

 ○​ O₂ + electrons + H⁺ → H₂O​

○​ H⁺ flows back through ATP Synthase → ATP​

●​ 🧾 Output:​
○​ About 28 ATP​

○​ Water (H₂O)​

⚗️ Anaerobic Respiration / Fermentation

When oxygen is unavailable, cells switch to fermentation to regenerate NAD⁺.

🔹 1. Lactic Acid Fermentation

●​ Pyruvate → Lactate​

●​ No ATP directly made, but glycolysis continues​

🔹 2. Alcoholic Fermentation (Yeast)

●​ Pyruvate → Ethanol + CO₂​

●​ Used in brewing and baking​

📊 ATP Yield Summary (Per 1 Glucose)

Step ATP NADH FADH₂ ATP from NADH/FADH₂

Glycolysis 2 2 0 5 (2 × 2.5)

Pyruvate Oxidation 0 2 0 5

Krebs Cycle 2 6 2 18 (6×2.5 + 2×1.5)

Total 4 10 2 ~32 ATP

Grand Total ~36 ATP

🗝️ Key Terms (Simplified)

●​ ATP: Energy currency of the cell​

●​ Glucose: Fuel source for cells​

●​ Pyruvate: 3C product of glycolysis​

●​ Acetyl-CoA: Entry compound for Krebs cycle​

●​ NADH / FADH₂: Electron carriers​

●​ Mitochondria: Cell’s power plant​

 ●​ ETC: Where most ATP is made​

●​ Chemiosmosis: ATP production using H⁺ flow​

●​ Fermentation: Emergency backup when O₂ is absent​

🌿 Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration

Feature Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

Location Chloroplasts Mitochondria

Energy Sunlight Glucose

Source

Reactants CO₂, H₂O, light Glucose, O₂

Products Glucose, O₂ CO₂, H₂O, ATP

Organisms Autotrophs (plants) All organisms

Purpose Store energy Release energy

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🧬 What Is Cellular Respiration?
Cellular respiration is a series of metabolic processes by which cells convert biochemical energy from nutrients,
primarily glucose, into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and release waste products.

🔋 Purpose of Cellular Respiration

●​ ATP Production: ATP serves as the primary energy currency of the cell, powering various biological activities
such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, and chemical synthesis.​

●​ Energy Extraction: Breaks down glucose to harness stored chemical energy.​

⚛️ Overall Chemical Equation

●​ Reactants: Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) and Oxygen (O₂)​

●​ Products: Carbon Dioxide (CO₂), Water (H₂O), and ATP​

🔄 Stages of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration consists of four main stages:

1.​ Glycolysis​

2.​ Pyruvate Oxidation (Link Reaction)​

3.​ Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)​

4.​ Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis)​

1️⃣ Glycolysis
●​ Location: Cytoplasm​

●​ Oxygen Requirement: Anaerobic (does not require oxygen)​

●​ Process:​

1.​ One glucose molecule (6-carbon) is split into two pyruvate molecules (3-carbon each).​

2.​ Net gain of 2 ATP molecules (4 produced, 2 consumed).​

3.​ Production of 2 NADH molecules.​

●​ Key Steps:​

1.​ Phosphorylation of glucose using ATP.​

2.​ Conversion to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.​

3.​ Cleavage into two 3-carbon sugars.​

 4.​ Oxidation and ATP generation.​

2️⃣ Pyruvate Oxidation (Link Reaction)

●​ Location: Mitochondrial matrix​

●​ Oxygen Requirement: Aerobic (requires oxygen)​

●​ Process:​

○​ Each pyruvate is converted into Acetyl-CoA.​

○​ One molecule of CO₂ is released per pyruvate.​

○​ One NADH is produced per pyruvate.​

●​ Per Glucose Molecule:​

○​ 2 Acetyl-CoA​

○​ 2 CO₂(Biology LibreTexts)​

○​ 2 NADH(Lumen Learning)​

3️⃣ Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

●​ Location: Mitochondrial matrix​

●​ Oxygen Requirement: Aerobic (requires oxygen)​

●​ Process:​

○​ Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate.​

○​ Through a series of reactions, citrate is decarboxylated and oxidized.​

○​ Regeneration of oxaloacetate completes the cycle.​

●​ Per Acetyl-CoA:​

○​ 3 NADH(Wikipedia)​

○​ 1 FADH₂(Wikipedia)​

○​ 1 ATP (or GTP)​

○​ 2 CO₂​

●​ Per Glucose Molecule (2 Acetyl-CoA):​

○​ 6 NADH​

○​ 2 FADH₂​

○​ 2 ATP​

○​ 4 CO₂​
4️⃣ Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis)
●​ Location: Inner mitochondrial membrane​

●​ Oxygen Requirement: Aerobic (requires oxygen)​

●​ Process:​

○​ NADH and FADH₂ donate electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC).​

○​ Electrons pass through a series of protein complexes, releasing energy.​

○​ Energy is used to pump protons (H⁺) across the membrane, creating a proton gradient.​

○​ Protons flow back through ATP synthase, driving the synthesis of ATP (chemiosmosis).​

○​ Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor, forming water.​

●​ ATP Yield:​

○​ Approximately 28 ATP molecules per glucose.​

⚗️ Anaerobic Respiration / Fermentation

When oxygen is scarce or absent, cells can undergo fermentation to regenerate NAD⁺, allowing glycolysis to continue.

1. Lactic Acid Fermentation

●​ Organisms: Animals (e.g., muscle cells), some bacteria​

●​ Process:​

○​ Pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid.​

○​ NADH is oxidized to NAD⁺.​

●​ ATP Yield: 2 ATP per glucose (from glycolysis)​

2. Alcoholic Fermentation
●​ Organisms: Yeast, some plants​

●​ Process:​

○​ Pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO₂.​

○​ NADH is oxidized to NAD⁺.​

●​ ATP Yield: 2 ATP per glucose (from glycolysis)​

📊 Energy Yield Summary (Per Glucose Molecule)

Stage ATP NADH FADH₂ ATP from
Produced Produced Produced NADH/FADH₂
Glycolysis 2 2 0 ~5

Pyruvate 0 2 0 ~5
Oxidation

Citric Acid Cycle 2 6 2 ~18

Total 4 10 2 ~28

●​ ​
Overall ATP Yield: Approximately 32 ATP per glucose molecule.​

🧠 Key Terms & Definitions

●​ ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): Primary energy carrier in cells.​

●​ Glucose: A six-carbon sugar that serves as a primary energy source.​

●​ Pyruvate: Three-carbon molecule produced from glycolysis.​

●​ Acetyl-CoA: Two-carbon molecule that enters the citric acid cycle.​

●​ NADH / FADH₂: Electron carriers that transport electrons to the ETC.​

●​ Mitochondria: Organelles where aerobic respiration occurs.​

●​ Electron Transport Chain (ETC): Series of protein complexes that transfer electrons and produce ATP.​

●​ Chemiosmosis: Process of ATP generation facilitated by the movement of protons across a membrane.​

●​ Fermentation: Anaerobic process that allows glycolysis to continue by regenerating NAD⁺.​

🌿 Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration

Feature Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

Location Chloroplasts Mitochondria

Energy Sunlight Glucose

Source

Reactants CO₂, H₂O, light C₆H₁₂O₆, O₂

Products C₆H₁₂O₆, O₂ CO₂, H₂O, ATP

Organisms Autotrophs (plants, algae) All living organisms

Purpose Store energy in glucose Release energy from

glucose
Tab 7
📌 3.1 Overview of Cellular Respiration
What is Cellular Respiration?
●​ Cellular respiration is the process where organisms break down organic molecules (like glucose) to
release energy, producing ATP (adenosine triphosphate) — the main energy currency of cells.​

●​ Occurs in two places:​

○​ Cytoplasm (first part)​

○​ Mitochondria (majority of it)​

Types:
●​ Aerobic Respiration — requires oxygen​

●​ Anaerobic Respiration — occurs without oxygen​

Focus is mostly on aerobic respiration in this guide.

Overall Reaction (for Glucose):

C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+Energy (ATP + heat)\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6 \text{O}_2 \rightarrow 6
\text{CO}_2 + 6 \text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{Energy (ATP + heat)}

Redox Reactions (Oxidation-Reduction)

●​ Chemical reactions involving electron transfers​

●​ Oxidation — loss of electrons​

●​ Reduction — gain of electrons​

Example:

●​ Mg + 2HCl → MgCl₂ + H₂​

●​ Mg is oxidized (loses electrons)​

●​ H⁺ is reduced (gains electrons)​

In cellular respiration:

●​ Glucose is oxidized to CO₂​

●​ Oxygen is reduced to water​

📌 3.2 Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, Oxidative Phosphorylation

🌟 ATP is like money from an ATM — released in small usable amounts.
Stages of Cellular Respiration:
1.​ Glycolysis​

2.​ Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)​

3.​ Oxidative Phosphorylation​

🔍 Glycolysis (in Cytosol)

●​ Splits glucose (6C) into two pyruvates (3C)​

●​ Does not need oxygen​

●​ Two phases:​

○​ Energy Investment — uses 2 ATP​

○​ Energy Payoff — produces 4 ATP + 2 NADH​

●​ Net Yield:​

○​ 2 ATP​

○​ 2 NADH​

🔍 Citric Acid Cycle (in Mitochondrial Matrix)

●​ Pyruvate converted to Acetyl-CoA before entering​

●​ Acetyl-CoA (2C) + Oxaloacetate (4C) → Citrate (6C)​

●​ Citrate is gradually oxidized, releasing:​

○​ CO₂​

○​ 3 NADH​

○​ 1 FADH₂​

○​ 1 GTP (similar to ATP)​

●​ Per glucose molecule: (2 turns)​

○​ 2 ATP (from GTP)​

○​ 8 NADH​

○​ 2 FADH₂​

🔍 Oxidative Phosphorylation (in Inner Mitochondrial Membrane)

 ●​ Electron Transport Chain (ETC):​

○​ NADH and FADH₂ donate electrons to ETC​

○​ Electrons move through protein complexes​

○​ Final electron acceptor is oxygen, forming water​

●​ Chemiosmosis:​

○​ H⁺ ions pumped into the intermembrane space​

○​ Flow back via ATP synthase, producing ATP​

ATP Yield:

●​ Each NADH → 2.5 ATP​

●​ Each FADH₂ → 1.5 ATP​

Total Yield per Glucose:

●​ 30–32 ATP​

📌 3.4 Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation

When No Oxygen is Available
Cells can still produce ATP through:

●​ Anaerobic Respiration (uses different final electron acceptors like sulfate or nitrate)​

●​ Fermentation (no ETC)​

Key Differences:
Anaerobic Respiration Fermentation

Uses ETC No ETC

Final electron acceptor is sulfate, CO₂, Uses pyruvate or

etc. derivatives

Produces more ATP than fermentation Only 2 ATP per glucose

Types of Fermentation:
1.​ Lactic Acid Fermentation​

○​ Pyruvate + NADH → Lactate + NAD⁺​

○​ No CO₂ released​
 ○​ Occurs in:​

■​ Bacteria (yogurt, cheese)​

■​ Human muscle cells (during oxygen deficit)​

2.​ Alcohol Fermentation​

○​ Pyruvate → Acetaldehyde + CO₂​

○​ Acetaldehyde + NADH → Ethanol + NAD⁺​

○​ Occurs in:​

■​ Yeasts (beer, wine, bread)​

Facultative Anaerobes vs Obligate Anaerobes

●​ Facultative Anaerobes — can switch between aerobic respiration and fermentation​

●​ Obligate Anaerobes — poisoned by oxygen; rely only on anaerobic processes​

📌 3.5 Comparing Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Overview
●​ Photosynthesis: converts light energy → chemical energy (glucose)​

●​ Cellular Respiration: converts chemical energy (glucose) → usable energy (ATP)​

Equations
Photosynthesis

6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O26 \text{CO}_2 + 6 \text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{light energy} \rightarrow

\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6 \text{O}_2

Cellular Respiration

C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATP (30-36)\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6 \text{O}_2 \rightarrow 6

\text{CO}_2 + 6 \text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{ATP (30-36)}

Key Similarities
●​ Both involve electron transport chains and chemiosmosis​

●​ Both produce ATP (photosynthesis during photophosphorylation)​

●​ Both occur in organelles with double membranes (mitochondria, chloroplasts)​

●​ Both follow the Law of Conservation of Energy and Matter​

Differences
Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

Occurs in chloroplast Occurs in mitochondria

Requires sunlight Does not require sunlight

Converts CO₂ and H₂O to Breaks glucose into CO₂ and H₂O
glucose

Anabolic (builds molecules) Catabolic (breaks down

molecules)

Ecological Importance
●​ Photosynthesis and respiration form a biological cycle sustaining life.​

●​ Explain the carbon and oxygen cycles​

●​ Supports the 10% rule and biomass pyramid in food chains​

📌 Final Takeaways
●​ Cellular respiration is the main process by which cells extract energy.​

●​ Aerobic respiration is more efficient than anaerobic processes.​

●​ Fermentation is useful when oxygen is limited.​

●​ Photosynthesis and respiration are interconnected, forming a cycle that recycles matter and energy in
ecosystems.​

●​ Together, these processes uphold life’s energy balance and play a critical role in ecological stability.​
Final print
📖 3.1 WHAT IS CELLULAR RESPIRATION?
🔍 What is it?
Cellular respiration is the process by which organisms break down organic molecules (like carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins) to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy form that powers most cellular
processes.

●​ Think of ATP as the cell’s battery — it stores and supplies energy when needed.​

●​ The main fuel for cellular respiration is glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆).​

●​ The process happens in small steps to efficiently release and store energy.​

🔍 Where does it occur?

●​ Begins in the cytoplasm (fluid part of the cell)​

●​ Completes in the mitochondria, known as the “powerhouse of the cell”​

🔍 Why is it important?
Without ATP, cells can’t perform essential activities like:

●​ Transporting materials​

●​ Synthesizing new molecules​

●​ Dividing and growing​

●​ Moving substances across membranes​

🔍 Types of Cellular Respiration:

●​ Aerobic Respiration: requires oxygen​
→ More efficient, produces more ATP​

●​ Anaerobic Respiration: occurs without oxygen​

→ Less efficient, produces less ATP​

Note: Most of the time, when we say "cellular respiration," we mean aerobic respiration.

📖 Principle of Redox Reactions

🔍 What are Redox Reactions?
●​ Chemical reactions involving the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another.​
 ●​ Two key terms:​

○​ Oxidation: Loss of electrons (think of it like losing negative charges)​

○​ Reduction: Gain of electrons (becoming more negative)​

Remember: LEO the lion says GER​

LEO = Lose Electrons → Oxidation​
GER = Gain Electrons → Reduction

🔍 Example:
Magnesium (Mg) + Hydrochloric acid (HCl) reaction:

●​ Mg is oxidized (loses electrons)​

●​ H⁺ is reduced (gains electrons)​

🔍 In Cellular Respiration:
●​ Glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide​

●​ Oxygen is reduced to water​

●​ The movement of electrons during these reactions releases energy used to make ATP​

📖 3.2 THREE STAGES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

ATP is produced in three major stages:

1️⃣ Glycolysis
●​ Occurs in the cytoplasm​

●​ Does not require oxygen (anaerobic)​

●​ Splits one glucose molecule (6 carbons) into two pyruvates (3 carbons each)​

Steps of Glycolysis:

●​ Energy Investment Phase​

○​ Uses 2 ATP to start the reaction​

●​ Energy Payoff Phase​

○​ Produces 4 ATP (net gain = 2 ATP)​

○​ Produces 2 NADH (an electron carrier)​

Overall Net Products per glucose:

●​ 2 ATP​

●​ 2 NADH​

●​ 2 Pyruvates​

Important Note:​
Even without oxygen, glycolysis continues.

2️⃣ Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle)

●​ Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix​

●​ Requires oxygen indirectly (since NADH and FADH₂ are needed later for ETC)​

●​ Completes the breakdown of glucose derivatives​

Before entering the cycle:

●​ Each pyruvate is converted into Acetyl-CoA (2C)​

●​ Produces 1 NADH and releases 1 CO₂ per pyruvate​

Per turn of the cycle (per Acetyl-CoA):

●​ 3 NADH​

●​ 1 FADH₂​

●​ 1 GTP (converted to ATP)​

●​ 2 CO₂​

Since there are 2 pyruvates per glucose:

●​ 6 NADH​

●​ 2 FADH₂​

●​ 2 ATP​

●​ 4 CO₂​

Key Takeaway:

●​ This stage finishes breaking glucose derivatives to CO₂​

●​ High-energy electrons are carried by NADH and FADH₂ to the next stage​

3️⃣ Oxidative Phosphorylation

 ●​ Occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane​

●​ Consists of:​

○​ Electron Transport Chain (ETC)​

○​ Chemiosmosis​

a. Electron Transport Chain

●​ Electrons from NADH and FADH₂ pass through a chain of proteins​

●​ Each transfer releases energy to pump H⁺ ions (protons) into the intermembrane space​

●​ Oxygen is the final electron acceptor​

○​ Combines with H⁺ to form water​

b. Chemiosmosis

●​ H⁺ ions flow back into the matrix through ATP Synthase​

●​ This enzyme uses the flow of protons to make ATP from ADP + Pi​

ATP Yield:

●​ Each NADH → 2.5 ATP​

●​ Each FADH₂ → 1.5 ATP​

Total per glucose (with Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle):

●​ Around 30–32 ATP​

📖 3.4 ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION AND FERMENTATION

When oxygen isn’t available, cells can still produce ATP through:

🔍 Anaerobic Respiration
●​ Like aerobic respiration but uses a different final electron acceptor (e.g., sulfate, nitrate, CO₂)​

●​ Occurs in some bacteria and archaea​

🔍 Fermentation
●​ Simplified process relying only on glycolysis​

●​ No electron transport chain​

●​ Produces 2 ATP per glucose​

Two Main Types:

1️⃣ Lactic Acid Fermentation

 ●​ Pyruvate + NADH → Lactate + NAD⁺​

●​ Occurs in:​

○​ Fungi (cheese, yogurt)​

○​ Human muscle cells (during oxygen shortage)​

2️⃣ Alcoholic Fermentation

●​ Pyruvate → CO₂ + Acetaldehyde​

●​ Acetaldehyde + NADH → Ethanol + NAD⁺​

●​ Occurs in:​

○​ Yeasts (beer, bread, wine)​

Important Concepts:

●​ Facultative Anaerobes: Can switch between aerobic and anaerobic (e.g., muscle cells)​

●​ Obligate Anaerobes: Oxygen is toxic to them (e.g., certain bacteria)​

📖 3.5 PHOTOSYNTHESIS VS CELLULAR RESPIRATION

🔍 What is Photosynthesis?
●​ Process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight to make glucose and oxygen from CO₂
and water​

●​ Occurs in chloroplasts​

Equation:

6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O26 \text{CO}_2 + 6 \text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{light energy} \rightarrow

\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6 + 6 \text{O}_2

🔍 How Are They Related?

Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration

Occurs in chloroplasts Occurs in mitochondria

Converts light energy to chemical energy Converts chemical energy in glucose to

(glucose) ATP

Reactants: CO₂ and H₂O Reactants: Glucose and O₂

Products: Glucose and O₂ Products: CO₂ and H₂O

Anabolic (builds molecules) Catabolic (breaks down molecules)

Uses light energy Releases chemical energy

🔍 Energy Production:
●​ Both involve electron transport chains and chemiosmosis​

●​ Both produce ATP​

●​ Photosynthesis produces ATP for sugar synthesis; respiration produces ATP for cellular work​

🔍 Ecological Connection:
●​ Both processes form a cycle:​

○​ Plants take CO₂ and release O₂​

○​ Animals take O₂ and release CO₂​

●​ Supports carbon and oxygen cycles​

●​ Explains the 10% energy transfer rule in food chains:​

○​ Energy decreases as you move up trophic levels because much is lost as heat via respiration​

🔍 Evolutionary Insight:
●​ Mitochondria and chloroplasts likely originated from endosymbiotic prokaryotes​

●​ Both have:​

○​ Double membranes​

○​ Circular DNA​

○​ Ribosomes​

📖 FINAL REMINDERS
●​ Cellular respiration is essential for life, providing energy for all activities.​

●​ Aerobic respiration is more efficient than anaerobic pathways.​

●​ Photosynthesis and respiration form an interconnected, balanced system vital for sustaining
ecosystems.​