November 7,2018
Photosynthesis- is the process by which plants, some bacteria and some protistans use the energy from
sunlight to produce glucose from carbon dioxide and water. This glucose can be converted into pyruvate
which releases adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by cellular respiration. Oxygen is also formed.
Photosynthesis may be summarised by the word equation:
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
It is convenient to divide the photosynthetic process in plants into four stages, each occurring in a defined
area of the chloroplast: (1) absorption of light, (2) electron transport leading to the reduction of NADP + to
NADPH, (3) generation of ATP, and (4) conversion of CO 2 into carbohydrates (carbon fixation).
Stage 1
Stage one of photosynthesis is the light-dependent reaction, wherein the organism uses sunlight to make
carrier molecules for energy. During this stage, sunlight interacts with chlorophyll, exciting its electrons
to a higher energy state. The organism harnesses this energy to make the energy carrier molecules ATP
and NADPH via photophosphorylation. During this stage, water molecules break apart, releasing oxygen
as a waste product.
Light-dependent reactions require sunlight. In the light-
dependent reactions, energy from sunlight is absorbed by
chlorophyll and converted into stored chemical energy, in the
form of the electron carrier molecule NADPH (nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate) and the energy currency
molecule ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The light-dependent
reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes in the
granum (stack of thylakoids), within the chloroplast.
Stage 2
Electron Transport and ATP is Generated
An initial electron acceptor takes the electrons from the oxygen and passes them down the electron
transport chain which ends with NADP+. The electrons reduce each NADP+ to NADPH. A movement of
protons coincides with the electron transport. This proton movement, known as the proton motive force,
creates ATP by combining ADP with a proton (P1-).
The dark phase, which takes place in the stroma and in the dark when the molecules that carry energy are
present, is also known as the Calvin cycle or C3 cycle. The dark phase uses the ATP and NADPH
generated in the light phase to make C-C covalent bonds of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water,
with the chemical ribulose biphosphate or RuBP, a 5-C chemical capturing the carbon dioxide. Six
molecules of carbon dioxide enter the cycle, which in turn produces one molecule of glucose or sugar.
Stage 3
Generation of ATP
Protons move down their concentration gradient from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma through
the F0F1 complexwhich couples proton movement to the synthesis of ATP from ADP and P i. This use of
the proton-motive force to synthesize ATP is identical with the analogous process occurring
during oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondrion.
Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in
the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
and then release waste products.[1] The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions, which
break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process, as weak so-called "high-energy"
bonds are replaced by stronger bonds in the products. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell releases
chemical energy to fuel cellular activity. Cellular respiration is considered an exothermic redox
reaction which releases heat.
The reactions of cellular respiration can be
grouped into three stages: glycolysis, the Krebs
cycle (also called the citric acid cycle), and
electron transport.
Stage I: Glycolysis
The first stage of cellular respiration is glycolysis.
It takes place in the cytosol of the cytoplasm.
Splitting Glucose
The word glycolysis means “glucose splitting,”
which is exactly what happens in this stage.
Enzymes split a molecule of glucose into two
molecules of pyruvate (also known as pyruvic
acid).
Results of Glycolysis
Energy is needed at the start of glycolysis to split the glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules.
These two molecules go on to stage II of cellular respiration. The energy to split glucose is provided by
two molecules of ATP. As glycolysis proceeds, energy is released, and the energy is used to make four
molecules of ATP. As a result, there is a net gain of two ATP molecules during glycolysis. During this
stage, high-energy electrons are also transferred to molecules of NAD+ to produce two molecules of
NADH, another energy-carrying molecule. NADH is used in stage III of cellular respiration to make more
ATP.
Stage II: The Krebs Cycle
Recall that glycolysis produces two molecules of pyruvate (pyruvic acid).
These molecules enter the matrix of a mitochondrion, where they start
the Krebs cycle.
Before the Krebs cycle begins, pyruvic acid, which has three carbon atoms,
is split apart and combined with an enzyme known as CoA, which stands
for coenzyme A. The product of this reaction is a two-carbon molecule
called acetyl-CoA. The third carbon from pyruvic acid combines with
oxygen to form carbon dioxide, which is released as a waste product. High-
energy electrons are also released and captured in NADH.
Stage III: Electron Transport
Electron transport is the final stage of aerobic respiration. In this stage,
energy from NADH and FADH2, which result from the Krebs cycle, is
transferred to ATP.
Transporting Electrons
High-energy electrons are released from NADH and FADH2, and they move along electron transport
chains, like those used in photosynthesis. The electron transport chains are on the inner membrane of the
mitochondrion. As the high-energy electrons are transported along the chains, some of their energy is
captured. This energy is used to pump hydrogen ions (from NADH and FADH2) across the inner
membrane, from the matrix into the intermembrane space.
Connecting Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are connected through an important relationship.
This relationship enables life to survive as we know it. The products of one process are
the reactants of the other. Notice that the equation for cellular respiration is the direct opposite
of photosynthesis:
Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O2
Photosynthesis makes the glucose that is used in cellular respiration to make ATP. The
glucose is then turned back into carbon dioxide, which is used in photosynthesis. While water is
broken down to form oxygen during photosynthesis, in cellular respiration oxygen is combined
with hydrogen to form water. While photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide and releases oxygen,
cellular respiration requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. It is the released oxygen that is
used by us and most other organisms for cellular respiration. We breathe in that oxygen, which is
carried through our blood to all our cells. In our cells, oxygen allows cellular respiration to
proceed. Cellular respiration works best in the presence of oxygen. Without oxygen, much less
ATP would be produced.
Cellular respiration and photosynthesis are important parts of the carbon cycle.
The carbon cycle is the pathways through which carbon is recycled in the biosphere. While
cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide into the environment, photosynthesis pulls carbon
dioxide out of the atmosphere. The exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen during
photosynthesis and cellular respiration worldwide helps to keep atmospheric oxygen and carbon
dioxide at stable levels.
Key Points
The equation for cellular respiration is the direct opposite of photosynthesis.
The exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen thorough photosynthesis or cellular respiration
worldwide helps to keep atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide at stable levels.
