Measurements and

Experimental Methods

ENME2MM

By: Prof R. Stopforth

Note: The following note pack is to be used in conjunction with the video links hyperlinked to the
headings.
Chapter 1: Definitions and Terms of Instruments
The results of an initial experiment are often incorrect due to unfamiliarity with the setup and
potential systematic errors. However, as you gather more data, your understanding of the
experiment improves, allowing you to minimize these errors. Furthermore, increasing the number of
measurements helps to provide a more accurate estimate of the population mean.

1.1.1 Error

An error is the difference between the actual instrument reading and the true value of that
particular variable at the instant. Error is only known when we calibrate or check the apparatus. In
the figure below, a is the true value, b the measured value and x the error in the reading.

a) Gross Errors

Gross errors are blunders on the part of the experimenter.

E.g. Mistakes on the reading scales

Parallax

Incorrect settings

Assumption of the wrong sensitivity.

b) Statistical/Random Errors

Statistical errors, or random errors, arise from fluctuations in measurements that are generally
random, despite being sometimes caused by unknown factors. With a sufficiently large sample size,
measurements will be evenly distributed around the mean at similar distances. Consequently,
averaging many measurements will smooth out the data and negate the impact of these
fluctuations. As the number of measurements increases, the influence of random fluctuations on the
average decreases. Thus, collecting more data reduces statistical uncertainty.

In Simpler terms, random errors arise from observations varying even though similar conditions
apply at each measurement. These are accidental, small and independent.
 Figure 1: Random and systematic error

c) Systematic Errors

Conversely, systematic errors are not due to random fluctuations and cannot be reduced by
collecting more data. These errors arise from various sources, such as instrument miscalibration,
incorrect procedure application, unknown physical effects, or any factor that influences the
measured quantity, and incorrect interpretation of results. Leading to incorrect repeated readings by
the same amount, therefore the readings seem precise. When these errors stem from issues with
the measuring instruments, they are referred to as instrumental errors. To reduce or eliminate
systematic errors, it is necessary to identify and correct their underlying causes.

1.1.2 Uncertainty

This is a number, but it is estimated. Uncertainty is what the error would be if we could calibrate the
apparatus.

For instance, if you measure the thickness of the cover of a book using an ordinary ruler, your
measurement is reliable only to the nearest millimeter. If your result is 3 mm it would be wrong to
state the result as 3.00 mm because of the limitations of the measuring device used. The actual
reading could be 3.00 mm, 2.85 mm or 3.11 mmm, but if you use a micrometer caliper and find that
the actual reading is 2.91 mm. Uncertainty is the distinction between these two measurements. The
caliper has a smaller uncertainty and is more accurate.

1.1.3 Reporting Errors: Significant figures and error values

Determining an error in an experiment may requires nearly as much effort as determining the actual
value. In fact, most of the effort sometimes goes into assessing the uncertainty in a measurement
and calibrating.

Using significant figures is a simple yet effective method for reporting errors. Significant figures refer
to the number of digits that can be reliably obtained from a measuring instrument. For instance, a
digital voltmeter with a four-digit display can provide voltage readings with four significant digits.
Conversely, it would be incorrect to report a six-digit value using an analog voltmeter whose smallest
division allows only a four-digit reading. One might estimate the reading to a fraction of the smallest
division, but such an estimate would carry a large uncertainty.

Significant figures are defined as Leftmost nonzero digit is the most significant figure.
Examples: 0.00007520 m

1334 m
 51.08 m

Rightmost nonzero digit is the least significant figure if there is no decimal point.
Examples: 1334 m
5120 m

11000 m

If there is a decimal point, rightmost digit is the least significant figure even if it is

zero.
Examples: 0.00007520 m
51.08 m

276.2 m

Then, the number of significant figures is the number of digits between the most and the

least significant figures including them.

Examples: 0.00007520 m 4 significant figures

1334 m 4 sf

51.08 m 4 sf

276.2 m 4 sf

1.1.4 Accuracy

This indicates the deviation of the reading from the known or calibrated input.

E.g. If the instrument gives 98 units when 100 units is the true value, then the accuracy is 2%. It is
usually expressed as a percentage (%) of the full deflection.

1.1.5 Resolution
This is the smallest change in a considered quantity which the instrument will detect. The smallest
value that the instrument can measure, a common ruler has a resolution of 1mm.

E.g. A volt meter that can detect a change of voltage of 1 decimal point value has a resolution of 0.1
V.

1.1.6 Sensitivity

This is the ratio of the deflection of the indicator to the change in quantity being measured.
 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦

E.g. If a 1 mV change from a sensor moves an indicator across 200 mm on a plotting recorder, then
the sensitivity is defined as 200 mm/mV.

1.1.7 Precision

This is the ability of an instrument to reproduce a reading with a given accuracy.

Figure 2: Precision

1.1.8 The Range

The minimum to maximum value measured by an instrument, sensor or gauge.

Ruler: min, 0 cm

Max, 30 cm

Range 0-30 cm

Figure 3: 30 mm Ruler
1.2 Different order systems and feedback control.
The order of an instrument can be defined as the highest order of the derivative describing the
behavior of the instrument. The order of the system impacts its behavior, including response time,
stability, and complexity.

Zero-order systems: has no energy storage elements, meaning the output responds immediately to
the input.

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐾. 𝑢(𝑡)

Here, y(t) is the output, K is the system gain, and u(t) is the input.

Any system which closely obeys above equation over its entire operating range is defined as a zero-
order system.

Example: Potentiometer/ Switch

When you turn the knob, the voltage output changes instantaneously.

First-order systems: A first-order system has one energy storage element

dy(t)
τ. = 𝐾. 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 + 𝑡(𝑡)

τ is the time constant, dy(t)/dt is the rate of change of the output.

Example: RC (resistor-capacitor) circuit.

When a voltage is applied, the capacitor charges, causing an exponential change in voltage across it.

Second-order systems: A second-order system has two energy storage elements. Systems that
possess inertia contain a second order derivative term in their modeled equation and can be
considered as a second order system. Accelerometers, diaphragm pressure transducers

𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
τ2 . 2
+ 2ζτ. = 𝐾. 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑦(𝑡)

τ is the natural period, ζ is the damping ratio, and d^2y(t)/dt^2 is the second derivative of the
output.

Example: RLC (resistor-inductor-capacitor) circuit.

The response can oscillate, depending on the damping ratio.

In other words, this order system includes feedback. A practical example is the speed dials on a car in
cruise control mode. System Components: Engine and Transmission, provides power to the wheels,
acting as the main force in adjusting speed, Speed Sensor: Measures the current speed of the car,
Control Unit: Compares the current speed with the desired speed and adjusts the throttle accordingly.

Figure 4: Feedback control of a car in cruise control

1.3 Tutorial Questions

1. A vehicle needs to maintain a desired speed of 100 m/s, while the actual speed is 92
m/s. (a) Calculate the error between the desired speed and the actual speed (b) if
the proportional gain (Kp) of 1 is used to correct the speed calculate the required
increased in speed (c) calculate feedback control for 3 iterations given that the next
two actual speeds were reordered to be 94 m/s and 97 m/s respectively. [a) 8 m/s;
b) 8 m/s; c) 8 m/s, 14 m/s, 17 m/s]
Chapter 2: The Determination and treatment of errors
Repeating measurements is a fundamental practice in experimentation that helps to ensure
accuracy, precision, and reliability of the results, while also enabling the identification and
quantification of errors and uncertainties. Repeat a reading several times. If the measurement
deviates a fixed amount from the known reading, then it is a systematic error. If it deviates by a
different amount, then it is random.

If we have no calibration point then it is uncertainty, not error. Systematic errors can be removed.
Random errors must be treated by statistical methods.

E.g. P = IV

V = 100 V ± 2 V

I = 10 A ± 0.2 A

Find:

1. The nominal power = (10).(100)=1000 W

2. The worst possible variation:
Pmax = (100 + 2).(10 + 0.2)
= 1040.4 W
Pmin = (100 – 2).(10 – 0.2)
= 960.4 W
3. Maximum uncertainty is:
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
× 100
𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
1040.4 − 1000 100
× = 4.04 %
1000 1

And

𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

× 100
𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

1000 − 960.4 100

× = −3.96 %
1000 1

This value of uncertainty is not very accurate and should be used only for rough inspection of data,
therefore the Kline & McClintock method is preferred as it provides more accurate and systematic
approach.
2.1 Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis is essential in measurements and experimental methods to ensure the accuracy,
reliability, and validity of results, and allows for better interpretation of data.

2.1.1 Introduction

Random error can affect any set of readings. Statistical analysis allows one to analyze a set of
readings, estimate the true value being measured and show how much confidence is placed in this
estimate. This allows for “bad” data to be discarded.

Reading of measurements can be used in graphs. Two types of graphs are commonly used, namely a
Histogram (which has discrete readings) and a continuous graph.

Figure 5: histogram

Figure 6: Continuous graph

2.1.2 Probability
Probability is the science of uncertainty, offering precise mathematical rules to understand and
analyze our lack of knowledge. It doesn't predict tomorrow's weather or next week's stock prices but
provides a framework for making informed decisions based on what we do and do not know.
Probability refers to how likely an event is to occur, it is expressed with values from 0 to 1. A
probability of 1 means an event will certainly occur and a probability of 0 means it will not occur.

1 1
Example 1: if we toss a coin, the probability of getting a head is 2 and of getting a tail is 2.

1
Example 2: if you toss a dice the probability of any number from 1 to 6 occurring is .
6

If we know the probability that separate events, then the probability that one or another number
will occur can be calculated.

Example: With 2 Dice the number thrown can be from 2-12. What are the probabilities of throwing
each number?

Total No. : 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Frequency : 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1

Probability : 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36

Total was 36 combinations of throws.

Add the numbers in the probability row to get a total of 1

2.2 Gaussian or Normal Distribution

The Gaussian probability curve is applicable only if the error in the individual pieces of data are
numerous, small, independent of each other and unbiased to direction, ie: not applicable to
systematic errors. They only apply strictly to large numbers of readings or populations but can be
applied to sample with less accuracy.
 Figure 7: Gaussian or normal distribution curve

Equation above curve is:

1 −(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝑃 (𝑥) = [𝑒𝑥𝑝 { }]
𝜎√2𝜋 2𝜎 2

Where: 𝜎 is the standard deviation.

𝑥̅ is the mean reading.

One can simplify by replacing

(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )
𝜂=
𝜎
Where 𝜂 is dimensionless
∑𝑥
𝑥̅ = 𝑛 in which X is the mean; the sign ∑ tells us to sum the values of the variable X, and n is the
total number of X variables.

∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝜎=√
𝑛−1

This shifts the mean to the origin and the curve is symmetrical about the y axis, thus the equation
becomes:

1 −𝜂2
𝑃 (𝜂) = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝜎√2𝜋 2
There are tables of probabilities for varying 𝜂

1. Complete the following table, and calculate the mean and standard deviation of the
recorded data. [𝑥̅ = 6.336; σ = 0,326]

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

x(mm) 6,42 6,28 6,77 6,12 6,03 7,01 6,33 5,99 6,14 6,27

di (xi - 𝑥̅ )

(di / σ)

2.2.1 Chauvenet’s Criterion

Chauvenet's Criterion is a statistical test used to identify and remove outliers from a data set. It
provides a quantitative method to determine whether an individual data point can be considered an
outlier based on the assumption of a normal distribution. In other word it defines an acceptable
scatter in a statistical sense, around the mean value from a given number of measurements.

As the number of reading increases, the criterion becomes more difficult to satisfy, until for very
large samples, the probability of rejecting a reading is very small

The application of Chevenet’s Criterion

1) Calculate 𝑥̅ and σ for all data points

2) Individual deviations are calculated
𝑑
3) 𝑖 is compared to Chauvenet’s table and jubious readings are rejected
𝜎
4) Step 1 repeated

Example: 10 measurements of certain lengths

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5.3 5.73 6.77 5.26 4.33 5.45 6.09 5.46 5.81 5.75
x(m)
-0.295 0.135 1.175 - - -0.145 0.495 - 0.215 0.155
𝑑1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥̅ ) 0.335 1.265 0.135
0.470 0.215 1,870 0.533 2.013 0.231 0.788 0.215 0.342 0.247
𝑑𝑖
( )
𝜎

1
𝑥̅ = Σ𝑥
𝑛 𝑖 1
1
𝜎 = [𝑛−1 Σ(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 ]2 , for more than 20 readings we ignore the 1 in (n-1)
In this example, the final values equal to:
1
𝜎 = [10−1 Σ[0.2952 + 0.1352 + 1.1752 + 0.3352 + 1.2652 + 0.1452 + 0.4952 + 0.1352 +
1
0.2152 + 0.1552 ]2 = 0.6283

𝑥̅ = 5.595 m
Eliminating bad readings: We have 10 readings, so we go to number 10 in our number of readings
where we find that dmax is 1.96. From here we do and compare 1.96 to the values in di. If the value
is more than this, then it is a random error and must be discarded.

After eliminating random error values, the mean and standard deviation becomes:

𝑥̅ = 5.071 𝑚
1
1 2
𝜎= [ (1.952625)] = 0.494
9−1

Number of Reading 𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜎
1.15
2
1.38
3
1.54
4
1.65
5
1.73
6
1.8
7
1.96
10
2.13
15
2.33
15
2.57
50
2.81
100
3.14
300
2.3 Kalman Filters
Kalman filters are algorithms used for estimating the state of a dynamic system from a series of
noisy measurements. They are widely used in control systems, navigation, and signal processing due
to their efficiency and accuracy.

Figure 8:Kalman Filters

Update Function: Combines the predicted state with new measurements to produce an improved
state estimate. Essentially it corrects the prediction using new measurements.

Figure 9: Update function

Before: 𝑥̅ = 10 & 𝜎 2 = 4

After: 𝜇 = 12 & 𝑟 2 = 4

̅= 1
𝑥′ [𝑟 2 𝑥̅ + 𝜎 2 𝜇]
𝜎2 + 𝑟2
 1
𝜎 2′ =
1 1
2 + 2
𝜎 𝑟

Predict Function: responsible for projecting the current state estimate forward, using a model
of how the system evolves. This gives a prediction of the system’s next state before any more
measurements are made, this stage provides an estimate of the system's future state.

Figure 10: Prediction Function.

𝑥̅ ′ = 𝑥̅ + 𝜇
′
𝜎2 = 𝜎2 + 𝑟2

̅ = 𝟖 & 𝜎2 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝝁 = 𝟏𝟎 & 𝑟2 = 𝟔

e.g 𝒙

𝑥̅ ′ = 8 + 10 = 18
′
𝜎 2 = 4 + 6 = 10

Example:

Initially: 𝑥̅ = 0, 𝜎 2 = 1000

𝜇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠 = [5,6,7,9,10]

𝜇𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = [1,1,2,1,1]

Measurement uncertainty ( 𝑟 2 meas) = 4

Motion uncertainty (𝑟 2 motion) = 2

Update Function (Measurement)

Measure 𝜇 = 5

1
𝑥̅ ′ = [𝑟 2 𝑥̅ + 𝜎 2 𝜇]
𝜎2 + 𝑟2
 1
𝑥̅ ′ = [4 × 0 + 1000 × 5] = 4.98
1000 + 4

′ 1 1
𝜎2 = = = 3.98
1 1 1 1
+
𝜎2 𝑟2 1000 + 4

Predict function (Motion)

𝜇 = 1, 𝑟 2 = 2

𝑥̅ ′ = 𝑥̅ + 𝜇 = 4.98 + 1 = 5.98
′
𝜎 2 = 𝜎 2 + 𝑟 2 = 3.98 + 2 = 5.98

𝑥̅ = 5.98

𝜎 2 = 5.98

Update function (measuring)

𝜇 = 6, 𝑟 2 = 4

1
𝑥̅ ′ = [𝑟 2 𝑥̅ + 𝜎 2 𝜇]
𝜎2 + 𝑟2
1
𝑥̅ ′ = [4 × 5.98 + 5.98 × 6] = 5.992
5.98 + 4

′ 1 1
𝜎2 = = = 2.398
1 1 1 1
+
𝜎2 𝑟2 5.98 + 4

𝑥̅ = 5.992

𝜎 2 = 2.398

Predict function (motion)

𝜇 = 1, 𝑟 2 = 2

𝑥̅ ′ = 𝑥̅ + 𝜇 = 5.992 + 1 = 6.992
′
𝜎 2 = 𝜎 2 + 𝑟 2 = 2.398 + 2 = 4.398

Update function

𝜇 = 7 => 𝑥̅ = 6.996, 𝜎 2 = 2.095

Predict function:

𝜇 = 2 => 𝑥̅ = 8.996 , 𝜎 2 = 4.095

Update function:

𝜇 = 9 => 𝑥̅ = 8.998, 𝜎 2 = 2.023

Predict function:

𝜇 = 1 => 𝑥̅ = 9.998, 𝜎 2 = 4.023

Update function:

𝜇 = 10 => 𝑥̅ = 9.999, 𝜎 2 = 2.006

Predict function:

𝜇 = 1 => 𝑥̅ = 10.999, 𝜎 2 = 4.006

2.4 Kline & McClintock Method of Uncertainty

If the relationship between the measured variables is known then the uncertainty in the final
variable can be calculated (WX).
1
2 2 2 2
𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋
𝑊𝑋 = [( 𝑊1 ) + ( 𝑊2 ) + ⋯ ( 𝑊𝑛 ) ]
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥𝑛

Where Wn is a weighting factor calculated by multiplying the variation of n (a percentage (%) value)
with n, OR Wn is equal to the variation if given with the original units of n. If this equation is used in
the previous power relation, the expected uncertainty is 2.83.

Example 1: Uncertainty of copper wire. The resistance of the copper wire is given as:

R = R 0 [1 + α(T − 20)]

Where R 0 = 6Ω ± 0.3% is the resistance @200 C

α = 0.004 ⃘C −1 ± 1% (Temp. co-efficient of resistance)

and temperature of wire is T = 300 ± 10 C

Calculate the resistance of the wire and its uncertainty.

a) Nominal resistance
R = 6[1 + 0.004(30 − 20)]
=6.24 Ω
 b) Uncertainty
∂R
∂R0
= 1 + α(T − 20) = 1.04

∂R
= R 0 (T − 20) = 60 Ω°C
∂α
∂R Ω
= R 0 α = 0.024
∂T °C

𝑤𝑅0 = (6)(0.003) = 0.018 Ω

𝑤𝛼 = (0.004)(0.01) = 4𝑥10 −5 °𝐶
𝑤𝑇 = 1 °𝐶
1
𝑤𝑅 = [(1.04)2 𝑥 (0.018)2 + (60)2 𝑥 (4𝑥10−5 )2 + (0.024)2 𝑥 (1)2 ]2
=0.0305 Ω
0.0305
or 𝑥100
6.24

=0.49%

Example 2:

In the following example the power dissipated by the resistor is required

Resistor R = 10 Ω±1 %
Voltage V = 100 V±1%
Current I = 10 A±1%

Figure 11: Power measurement across a resistor

Find:
𝑉2
1) 𝑃 = 𝑅

2) P=VI

a) Nominal power
V2
P= R
= 1 kW P = VI = 1 kW
 ∂P 2V ∂P −V2
b) ∂V
= R ∂R
= R2
2 1
2V −V2
Wp = [(( R ) 𝑥 WV ) + (( R2 ) 𝑥 WR )2 ]2

= 22.36 W
𝑊𝑝
= 2.236 %
𝑃
∂P 𝜕𝑃
c) ∂V
=I 𝜕𝐼
=𝑉
1
wp = [(I 𝑥 W)2 + (V 𝑥 W)2 ]2
= 14.14 W
𝑊𝑝
= 1.414 %
𝑃

Therefore, the second method is better as it provides less uncertainty.

2.5 Chi-Squared test of goodness of fit

𝑛
2
[(𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)𝑖 − (𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)𝑖 ]2
𝑥 =∑
(𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)𝑖
𝑖=1

n = no of observations, a table is given of chi – squared for probability p and degrees of freedom F.

F = n–k

n = no of observations

k = imposed restrictions

Example:

Two dice are rolled a hundred times (one constraint, k = 1) and the results noted. Calculate the
probability that the dice are unloaded.
 No. Occurrence Probability Expected

1
2 2 2.778
36

1
3 3 5,556
18

1
4 9 8,333
12

1
5 12 11,111
9

5
6 14 13,889
36

1
7 19 16,667
6

5
8 15 13,889
36

1
9 13 11,111
9

1
10 8 8,333
12

1
11 4 5.556
18

1
12 1 2,778
36

TOTAL 1 100

Thus 𝑥 2 = 3,842

F = n–k P = 0,954

= 11 – 1

= 10
Chi-squared P is the probability that the value in the table will be exceeded for a given number of
degrees of freedom F+

P 0.995 0.990 0.975 0.950 0.900 0.750 0.500 0.250 0.100 0.050 0.025 0.010 0.005

F=

1 0.0393 0.0157 0.0982 0.0393 0.0158 0.102 0.455 1.32 2.71 3.84 5.02 6.63 7.88

2 0.0100 0.0201 0.0506 0.103 0.211 0.575 1.39 2.77 4.61 5.99 7.38 9.21 10.6

3 0.717 0.115 0.216 0.352 0.584 1.21 2.37 4.11 6.25 7.81 9.35 11.3 12.8

4 0.207 0.297 0.484 0.711 1.06 1.92 3.36 5.39 7.78 9.49 11.1 13.3 14.9

5 0.412 0.554 0.831 1.15 1.61 2.67 4.35 6.63 9.24 11.1 12.8 15.1 16.7

6 0.676 0.872 1.24 1.64 2.20 3.45 5,35 7.84 10.6 12.6 14.4 16.8 18.5

7 0.989 1.24 1.69 2.17 2.83 4.25 6.35 9.04 12/0 14.1 16.0 18.5 20.3

8 1.35. 1.65 2.18 2.73 3.49 5.07 7.34 10.2 13.4 15.5 17.5 20.1 22.0

9 1.73 2.09 2.70 3.33 4.17 5.90 8.34 11.4 14.7 16.9 19.0 21.7 23.6

10 2.16 2.56 3.25 3.94 4.87 6.74 9.34 12.5 16.0 18.3 20.5 23.2 25.2

11 2.60 3.05 3.82 4.57 5.58 7.58 10.3 13.7 17.3 19.7 21.9 24.7 26.8

12 3.07 3.57 4.40 5.23 6.30 8.44 11.3 14.8 18.5 21.0 23.3 26.2 28.3

13 3.57 4.11 5.01 5.89 7.04 9.30 12.3 16.0 19.8 22.4 24.7 27.7 29.8

14 4.07 4.66 5.63 6.57 7.79 10.2 13.3 17.1 21.1 23.7 26.1 29.1 31.3

15 4.60 5.23 6.26 7.26 8.55 11.0 14.3 18.2 22.3 25.0 27.5 30.6 32.8

16 5.14 5.81 6.91 7.96 9.31 11.9 15.3 19.4 23.5 26.3 28.8 32.0 34.3

17 5.70 6.41 7.56 8.67 10.1 12.8 16.3 20.5 24.8 27.6 30.2 33.4 35.7

18 6.26 7.01 8.23 9.39 10.9 13.7 17.3 21.6 26.0 28.9 31.5 34.8 37.2

19 6.84 7.63 8.91 10.1 11.7 14.6 18.3 22.7 27.2 30.1 32.9 36.2 38.6

20 7.43 8.26 9.59 10.9 12.4 15.5 19.3 23.8 28.4 31.4 34.2 37.6 40.0

21 8.03 8.90 10.3 11.6 13.2 16.3 20.3 24.9 29.6 32.7 35.5 38.9 41.4

22 8.64 9.54 11.0 12.3 14.0 17.2 21.3 26.0 30.8 33.9 36.8 40.3 42.8

23 9.26 10.2 11.7 13.1 14.8 18.1 22.3 27.1 32.0 35.2 38.1 41.6 44.2

24 9.89 10.9 12.4 13.8 15.7 19.0 23.3 28.3 33.2 36.4 39.4 43.0 45.6

25 10.5 11.5 13.1 14.6 16.5 19.9 24.3 29.3 34.4 37.7 40.6 44.3 46.9

26 11.2 12.2 13.8 15.4 17.3 20.8 25.3 30.4 35.6 38.9 41.9 45.6 48.3

27 11.8 12.9 14.6 16.2 18.1 21.7 26.3 31.5 36.7 40.1 43.2 47.0 49.6

28 12.5 13.6 15.3 16.9 18.9 22.7 27.3 32.6 37.9 41.3 44.5 48.3 51.0

29 13.1 14.3 16.0 17.7 19.8 23.6 28.3 33.7 39.1 42.6 45.7 49.6 52.3

30 13.8 15.0 16.8 18.5 20.6 24.5 29.3 34.8 40.3 43.8 47.0 50.9 53.7
Interpolation is used to calculate the Probability. The following steps could be used for this
calculation:
• X2 = 3.842 which fits in the region t
• Diffi = Δ(X2) = 3.94 - 3.25 = 0.69
• Diff2 = 3.842 - 3.25 = 0.592
• ΔP = 0.975 – 0.950 = 0.025
• A = 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓2
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓
x ΔP where A is the proportional ratio
1

• As P decreases towards the right, the desired P will be below 0.975

P = 0.975 - A
0.592
= 0.975 - ( 0.69 𝑥0.025)

= 0.954
2.6 Tutorial
1) A resistance arrangement of 50 Ω is desired. Two resistances of 100.0 ± 0.1 Ω and two
resistances of 25.0 ± 0.02 Ω are available. Which should be used, a series arrangement with
the 25 Ω resistors or a parallel arrangement with the 100 Ω resistor? Calculate the
uncertainty for each arrangement.
(0.02√2 Ω; 0.025√2 Ω)
2) The period of oscillation T, of a simple pendulum is related to the length L by the
relationship:
𝐿
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔
An experiment is performed to determine the gravitational constant g.
L is measured as 1 m ± 0.5 cm
T is measured as 2 s ± 0.05 s
Estimate the uncertainty in the calculated value of g.
Which measurement affects the result the most? Does the value of g lie within the expected
bounds?
3) Describe what is meant by:
a. Sensitivity
b. Precision
c. Range

Of an instrument?
4) A resistance arrangement of 20 Ω is required. Resistance of 60 Ω, 30 Ω, and 5 Ω are available
(as many as necessary). Devise the most suitable arrangement of resistors to give the best
accuracy. The uncertainties in the values of the resistances is given as:
60 ± 0.05 Ω
30 ± 0.02 Ω
5 ± 0.01 Ω

(Infinity amount of answers for this question)

5) The volume of Oil in a cylinder is 46.5± 0.1 𝑚𝐿. Determine the percentage
uncertainty. [0,215%]

6) The measured density of aluminum on a certain experiment is 2,6 g/𝑐𝑚3 , while the
actual value is 2,7 g/𝑐𝑚3 . What is the percentage error? [3,7%]

7) Two resistances 𝑅1 = (100±5) ohm and 𝑅1 = (200±10) ohm are connected in series.
Find the equivalent resistance of the series combination. [R= (300 ± 15) ohm]

8) The resistance R = V/I where V = (200 ± 5) V and I = (20 ± 0.2) A. Find the percentage
error in R. [Percentage error = 3.5%]
 9) The centripetal force acting on a body of mass 50 kg moving in a circle of radius 4 m
with a uniform speed of 10 m/s is calculated using the equation F = m𝑣 2 /𝑟. If the
accuracies of measurement of m, v, and r, are 0.5 kg, 0.02 m/s, and 0.01 m
respectively, determine the percentage error in the force. [1,65 %]

Gaussian Distribution and Chevenets Criteria

10) Complete the following table, and calculate the mean and standard deviation of the
recorded data. [𝑥̅ = 6.336; σ = 0,326]

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

x(mm) 6,42 6,28 6,77 6,12 6,03 7,01 6,33 5,99 6,14 6,27

di (xi - 𝑥̅ )

(di / σ)

Kalman Filters

11) Suppose we multiple two Gaussians, a prior and a measurement probability. The
prior has a mean of 𝑥̅ and a variance of 𝜎 2 , the measurement has a mean of 𝜇 and a
variance of 𝛾 2 . The prior Gaussian has higher uncertainty compared to the
measurement Gaussian. Represent the above with the aid of a Gaussian graph (a)
and locate the new mean. (b) How will the new variance compare to the previous
and measured variances? Explain. (c) On the same graph, draw the resulting
Gaussian graph.

12) If both the measurement and prior had the same value variance with different
means, what would be the resulting mean and variance. Sketch a graph with the 3
Gaussian representations. Hint: use the equations to find relation.

13) Consider a linear system with a state variable that follows a Gaussian distribution
with a mean of 5 and a variance of 9. A Gaussian noise with a mean of 8 and variance
of 4 disturbs the measurement system. Determine the updated and predicted mean
and variance after the application of the Kalman filter. [7.08 m, 2.77 m; 15.08 m,
6.77 m]

14) A cyclist rides a bike on a rocky terrain for. The bike incorporates three sensors that
take readings. The measurement from sensor 1 had a mean and variance of 12 and
5, that of sensor 2 had 3 and 4 and the third sensor had 7 and 6. Determine the
updated mean and variance if the measurements are assumed to be (a)
uncorrelated, (b) explain what is meant by uncorrelated and perfectly correlated. [22
m, 15 m]
 15) A vehicle is moving at an initial state estimation of 0 and initial uncertainty of 15. A
measuring system takes readings as the vehicle propels for 30 minutes. The vectors
𝜇1 = [2, 5, 11] and 𝜇2 =[0.2, 1, 4] consists of the readings for measurement and
motion of the vehicle, respectively. The measurement of uncertainty in each case is
3 and 2. Predict the current state of the vehicle every 10 seconds. [1.67 m, 2.5 m;
1.87 m, 4.5 m; 3.75 m, 1.8 m; 4.75 m, 2.8 m; 7.77 m, 1.45m; 11.77 m, 3.45 m]

16) An object has a state vector x= [3] with a measurement vector z= [5]. The state
transition matrix is F= [1] and measurement matrix is H= [1]. The initial state
estimate is 0 and the initial covariance matrix is 2. The measurement noise and
process noise covariance’s are 0.01 and.0.001, respectively. If the input is 2, calculate
the updated and predicted state estimates and covariance matrices. [ 1.99 m, 0.01
m; 5 m, 2m]

Kline McKlintock

17) Obtain an expression for the uncertainty in determining the volume of a cylinder
from measurements of its radius and height. The volume of the cylinder in terms of
radius ad height is V= πr^2.h. [ Wv=±[(2𝑊𝑟)2 + (𝑊ℎ)2 ]1/2 ]

18) A resistor has a nominal stated value of 10 Ω ± 1%. A voltage is impressed on the
resistor, and the power dissipation is to be calculated in two ways: (1) from P= E^2/R
and (2) from P= EI. Calculate the uncertainty in the power determination where:
E=100 V ±1% and I=10 A ±1%.

[ (1) Wp=22.36 W, (2) Wp=14.14 ]

19) Uncertainty of a copper wire. The resistance of a certain size of copper wire is given
as:

𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜[1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 20)]

Where Ro = 6 Ω ± 0.3% is the resistance at 20 ℃, 𝛼 = 0.004 ± 1% is the temp

coefficient of the resistance, and the temp of the wire is T= 30 ± 1 ℃. Calculate the
resistance of the wire and its uncertainty. [ Wr=00305 Ω or 0.49% ]
 20) A resistance of 50 Ω is required in a circuit using two combinations of resistors where
the uncertainty of these resistors in series is 2%, and 1% for parallel, calculate the
uncertainty in circuit resistance in series and parallel to help you decide which one to
use between the two. [Wr,s=0.028 Ω, Wr,p=0.00354 Ω]

Chi Squared test for Goodness of fit.

21) A poker-dealing machine is supposed to deal cards at random, as if from an infinite

deck.

In a test, you counted 1600 cards, and observed the following:

Spades 404

Hearts 420

Clubs 356

Diamonds 400

Jockers 82

Could it be that the suits are equally likely? Or are these discrepancies too much to
be random? [critical value= 7.815]

22) In an experiment in breeding mice, a geneticist has obtained 120 brown mice with
pink eyes, 48 brown mice with brown eyes, 36 white mice with pink eyes and 13
white mice with brown eyes. Theory predicts that these types of mice should be
obtained in the ratios 9 : 3 : 3 : 1. Test the compatibility of the data with theory,
using a 5% critical value. [critical value= 7.815]

23) 256 visual artists were surveyed to find out their zodiac sign. The results were: Aries
(29), Taurus (24), Gemini (22), Cancer (19), Leo (21), Virgo (18), Libra (19), Scorpio
(20), Sagittarius (23), Capricorn (18), Aquarius (20), Pisces (23). Test the hypothesis
that zodiac signs are evenly distributed across visual artists. [p-value of 0.9265]
Chapter 3: Applications and Industry Measurements
3.1 GPS, or Global Positioning System
is a satellite-based navigation system that provides precise location and time information anywhere
on Earth. It consists of three main components: the space segment, the control segment, and the
user segment. The space segment includes a constellation of at least 24 satellites orbiting the Earth.
The control segment comprises ground stations that monitor and manage these satellites, while the
user segment consists of GPS receivers used by individuals and systems.

Figure 12: The globe

GPS uses triangulation, where receivers determine their position by timing signals from multiple
satellites. Each satellite sends a signal with its position and the exact transmission time. The receiver
calculates the distance to each satellite based on the signal's time delay. With data from at least four
satellites, it can compute its 3D position, including latitude, longitude, and altitude.

Figure 13: How satellites work.

GPS has revolutionized aviation by providing accurate and reliable navigation and positioning
information. It supports several critical functions like facilitating instrument approaches to airports,
improving safety and accessibility, especially in poor weather conditions. It also supports flight
tracking where airlines and air traffic controllers use GPS to monitor aircraft positions in real-time.

Google Maps leverages GPS technology to provide a wide range of location-based services lie real-
time navigation in the form of turn-by-turn navigation for drivers and location tracking.

Figure 14: Google maps

while highly accurate, GPS can still be subject to various errors that can affect the precision of the
location data. These errors can stem from several sources, including the satellite signals, the
environment, and the GPS receivers themselves. To improve GPS accuracy and reduce errors, several
techniques and technologies are employed. One is Differential GPS which uses ground-based
reference stations to provide corrections to GPS signals.
3.2 Measurements Performed for Accident Investigations
3.2.1 Total station

A total station is an electronic/optical instrument that uses a laser and can measure and calculate
angles and distances. The setup of the total station is important for ensuring measurements are
accurate and the height of the mirror (prism) needs to also be considered. The device's accuracy is
further validated by its calibration certificate which needs to be updated annually – the calibration
certificate is particularly important if the findings are presented in court by an expert witness
(accident investigation expert). Some total stations also have a GPS integrated on the top. The data
collected by a total station can be imported into a computer program which then allows a site plan
to be plotted, and simulations of the accident can be made.

𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑐 × ( )
2

Where 𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠).

Figure 15: Total station.

3.2.2 Corner weight scales and determining the vehicle center of mass

Corner weight scales are used to measure a vehicle's weight distribution and ultimately determine
the vehicle's center of gravity (COG) values. The COG values are important as they are applied when
determining factors like the static stability factor (SSF) which helps predict the rollover risk in single-
vehicle accidents. The COG is also used in momentum calculations and needs to be known as
accurately as possible. Factors that influence the COG and include the number and location of
passengers in the vehicle, the amount of fuel in the fuel tank and the type and location of any
belongings or baggage in the vehicle.
Calculating a vehicle’s center of gravity

Measured Parameter Value

Front Left Corner (kg) 319

Front Right Corner (kg) 340

Rear Left Corner (kg) 200

Rear Right Corner (kg) 195

Total Weight (kg) 1054

Front Weight when rear 332+343

Raised (kg) =675
VW Polo measurements:

Track width: 1.463 m

Wheelbase: 2.470 m

Wheel height: 330 mm

Vertical height (rear raised): 545 mm

NB: Raised height to be 15 to 20

degrees

- Roughly 600 mm if possible

Front to back COG

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × 100 (1)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
 319 + 340
= × 100
1054

= 62.52 %

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

= 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (2)

= 2.47 × 0.6252

= 1.544 𝑚

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟 = (3)
2

2.470
=
2

= 1.235 𝑚

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

= ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 − 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (4)

= 1.235 − 1.544

= −309 𝑚𝑚

(309 𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡)

→ Negative: to the front

→ Positive: to the back
Left to right COG

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = × 100 (5)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

319 + 200
= × 100
1054

= 49.24 %

𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

= 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ × 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (6)

= 1.463 × 0.4924

= 720 𝑚𝑚

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟 = (7)
2

1.463
=
2

= 731.5 𝑚𝑚
 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
= ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ − 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (8)

= 731.5 − 720

= 11.5 𝑚𝑚

(11.5 𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

→ Negative: to the left

→ Positive: to the right
Height COG

sin (𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒) × 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 (𝑚) = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 (𝑚) (9)

0.380
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
2.47

𝜃 = 8.849°

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = |𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 − 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠| (10)

= |(319 + 340) − (332 + 343)|

= 16

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 × 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = (11)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

2.470 × 16
=
1054tan (8.849°)

= 240.8 𝑚𝑚

𝐶𝑂𝐺 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + 𝐶𝑂𝐺 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (12)

= 165 𝑚𝑚 + 240.8 𝑚𝑚

= 406 𝑚𝑚
3.2.3 Onboard Telemetry

Onboard telemetry and measurements can be incredibly valuable in accident investigations. Modern
vehicles have onboard telemetry where computers can gather data from different sensors in the vehicle.
Sensors may include wheel sensors that measure the rotation of the wheel. This information can relate
back to gear ratios and be used to determine speed ranges. Steering angle sensors, change in velocity
sensors and seatbelt sensors are also used. The engine and gearbox parameters can also be monitored
and airbag control modules can monitor any forces applied to the vehicle which may cause the airbag to
activate.

Role of cell phones

Advancing technology in cell phones means they have become valuable tools in accident investigations.
Not only can cameras be used to take pictures that have GPS coordinates but measurements including
road angle can be taken from certain apps. However, cell phones are not calibrated devices but their
accuracy does closely compare to measurements taken by calibrated devices.

3.2.4 Key things to record if you are involved in an accident

In terms of measuring: the context of where measurements are taken is a very important aspect of an
accident scene. Taking pictures of the damage to your vehicle and pictures of your vehicle in the context
of the accident scene with any features in the foreground or background which can be used as a
reference later if the scene is cleared. Look for road markings including tyre marks.

In terms of driver information: having your cell phone on your person can be helpful when recording
drive details after an incident. Taking a picture of the license disc gives you the vehicle’s engine number,
chassis number and vehicle registration. After traumatic events, important information is often recalled
incorrectly, or people struggle to remember events therefore it is important to take pictures of as much
as possible.

Other disciplines involved in accident investigation

→ Civil engineering: the use of the total station has been adapted from its use in civil engineering
practice to be used in accident investigations.
 → Tyre knowledge: understanding Tyre measurements, material, condition and the effect on
handling and stability of a vehicle.
→ Metallurgical and materials engineering: understanding component failure

3.2.5 Tyres

In automobile accident investigations one of the most important factors to investigate is the tyres,
especially in wet-weather conditions. The main channels of the tyre are responsible for the dispersion of
water. Each channel has a tread-depth wear indicator (TWI) which when worn past a certain point
renders the tyre illegal to drive with as it does not meet the minimum requirement for road safety
standards. Tread wear can be measured using a vernier caliper or TWI which can be purchased.

3.2.6 Measuring surface roughness

When performing accident investigations, the roughness of the surface needs to be known as it alludes
to the condition of the road. In calculation this is referred to as the coefficient of friction and for dry
surfaces in good condition the factor is 0.7and for wet surfaces 0.4. Using a tyre apparatus with a known
mass and scale the coefficient of friction is calculated using the pull force measured.

3.2.7 Radar Gun

A radar gun is used to measure the speed of an object, and it consists of a radio transmitter and
receiver. The signal bounces off the object of interest and back to the receiver and the time of flight of
that signal is recorded.

𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 ×
2

Where the speed of sound is 300 m/s.

It is important to take the readings straight ahead of the vehicle for accurate readings as opposed and
angle side-on or from the rear.
3.3 Medical Robotics

Medical robotics combines advanced robotic systems with the medical field to enhance the precision,
control, and capabilities of medical procedures. Instrumentation in medical robotics involves various
components and technologies that enable robots to perform complex tasks in surgery, diagnostics,
rehabilitation, and other medical applications.

Key aspects include: Robotic arms and sensors.

Robotic arms: These are the primary components that mimic the movements of a human arm, providing
dexterity and range of motion. They are designed to perform precise movements with high accuracy.

Examples

• TOUCH HAND prosthetic hand uses of sensors to convert muscle signals into precise
movements of the hand so that an amputee is able to perform daily tasks.

• The NAVIO Surgical System, developed by Smith & Nephew, is an advanced robotic-assisted
platform designed to improve the accuracy and outcomes of orthopedic procedures, particularly
knee surgeries such as partial and total knee replacements. Instrumentation involved in the
NAVIO surgical system involves: Robotic handpiece (handheld robotic-assisted tool that the
surgeon uses to perform bone preparation with high precision), tracking and navigation (uses
cameras to track position and operation of instrument), and calibration just to name a few.
Sensors: They enable precise measurements, real-time feedback, and automated control, enhancing the
functionality and effectiveness of medical devices. In surgical instruments, they track the precise
movements of surgical instruments and robotic arms, ensuring accuracy and control during procedures.
3.4 Aviation Instrumentation

3.4.1 Motion of a Vehicle (Aircraft)

Why are moments important?

The same applies to a car/bus, the higher the COG in a vehicle, the more unstable it becomes when
making sharp turns.
Sling 2 Aircraft Mass and Balance Sheet

• For safe take-off and landing %MAC and mass values at take-off and empty must be within the
red box allocated on the chart above.
• If these values fall outside the box above, adjustments to the amount of luggage or fuel must be
made or lighter passengers need to sit in the seats.
Sling 2 Aircraft Mass and Balance Sheet – Example
3.5 Tutorial Questions

Measurements performed for accident investigation.

1. A total station is used extensively in accident investigations. Explain how a total station
works and how it is used in accident investigations.

2. Explain in a short paragraph why it is important to calibrate your instruments and relate
this to the total station.

3. In the process of measuring the center of gravity (COG) of a vehicle, the vehicle is
parked on 4 scales, and the readings on each scale are taken. Then the vehicle is jacked
up on the back axle as high as possible so that only the front wheels are on the scales
and then the readings are taken again. A measurement is taken of how high the rear
axle is lifted, the raised height is normally between 15-20 degrees which is roughly
around 600 mm. The table below shows the readings. What is the COG of the vehicle?
[309 mm to the front; 12,4 mm to the right; 389,9 mm from the ground]

Measured Parameter Value

Front left corner (kg) 320

Front right corner (kg) 340

Rear left corner (kg) 200

Rear right corner (kg) 198

Total weight (kg) 1058

Front weight raised (kg) 675

Vehicle measurements:

Track width: 1,463 m

Wheel base: 2.470 m

Wheel height: 330 mm

Vertical height raised: 545 mm

 NB: The image is just for visualization, ignore the dimensions in the image.

Instrumentation and Mechanical Considerations in Aviation

4. Consider the weight and balance of an aeroplane. The plane has 45 L of fuel (petrol)
onboard. The right seat passenger and left seat pilot weigh 120 kg and 90 kg
respectively. The front baggage and rear baggage weigh 23 kg and 22 kg respectively.

Complete the table for the weight and balance, and identify if it is safe for the aircraft to
take off. If the aircraft is able to take off, and it should return empty, will it be safe to
land the aircraft?
Chapter 4: Temperature and Pressure Measurements
4.1 Temperature Measurement Devices
4.1.1 Mechanical Devices
4.1.1.1 Using an ideal gas thermometer

The ideal gas thermometer operates based on the ideal gas law:

𝑃𝑉=𝑛𝑅𝑇 where P is pressure, 𝑉 is volume, 𝑛 is the number of moles of gas, R is the universal gas
constant, and T is temperature. For a constant volume gas thermometer, V and n are constant, so 𝑃 ∝ 𝑇.
By measuring the pressure of a fixed volume of gas, the temperature can be determined using the
relationship T∝P.

Figure 16: Gas thermometer

The following gases are used depending on the temperatures being measured:

N -30 ℃ - 500 ℃ (range of use)

He used at lower temperature

4.1.1.2 Vapour pressure thermometer

A thermometer in which the variable saturated vapor pressure of a volatile liquid is used as a measure of
the temperature, and which thus has the advantage over some other types of thermometers of being
free from errors due to bulb expansion. Uses alcohol, Freon and water as the liquid.
4.1.1.3 Liquid type expansion thermometer

Works on the same principle as the vapor pressure thermometer but consists of liquid. The
thermometer operates based on the principle that liquids expand when heated and contract when
cooled. The liquid (often mercury or alcohol) is enclosed in a glass bulb connected to a narrow glass tube
(the capillary). As the temperature increases, the liquid expands and rises in the capillary tube.

The height of the liquid column is proportional to the temperature.

4.1.1.4 Volume expansion thermometer: liquid in-glass thermometer

Consists of a bulb and a thin tube through which the liquid can be seen. Sometimes it has a contraction
chamber to prevent the indicator from withdrawing into the bulb or a second bulb at the other end for
overheating. Mercury range: -20 ℃ - 500 ℃. The upper limit of the range may be raised by introducing
N2 or CO2 into the volume above the mercury. This raises the boiling point of the mercury. The Alcohol
thermometer is used for lower ranges.
4.1.1.5 The bimetallic strip

Two strips of metal with different coefficients of thermal expansion are bonded together. At
temperatures above or below the bonded temperature the strip will bend one way or the other-
measure radius of curvature.
4.1.2 Electrical Devices

4.1.2.1 The resistance thermometer

It is a device which varies its resistance as temperature changes.

𝐑 = 𝐑 𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝛂𝐓 + 𝛃𝐓 𝟐 ) zero for small ∆T

Advantages: No reference junction.

No special extension wires.

They usually made of platinum (550 ℃), Cu(120 ℃), and Ni(320 ℃)
4.1.2.2 Thermistors

They have a high negative coefficient of resistance.

1 1
𝛽( − )
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 𝑇 𝑇0

Advantages: Very sensitive

Response in order of ms

Very stable

Range approx. 0 - 320 ℃

4.1.2.3 Thermocouples

Seebeck effect

When two dissimilar metals are joined together an EMF exists them which is a function of temperature.

Peltier effect

If current is drawn then the EMF alters slightly

Thomson effect

If a temperature gradient exists along a wire then the emf changes.

Properties: There has to be at least two junction => 2 EMF’s

It is necessary to calibrate one of these. I.e. you need a reference point.

4.2 Pressure measurements
4.2.1 Gravitational Pressure Measurements

Gravitational pressure measurement refers to the method of determining pressure based on the height
of a fluid column in a gravitational field. It involves calculating the pressure exerted by a fluid due to the
force of gravity, Also known as hydrostatic pressure.

The principle behind gravitational pressure measurement relies on the hydrostatic pressure equation:
P=ρgh

where:

• P is the pressure,
• ρ is the fluid density,
• g is the acceleration due to gravity,
• h is the height of the fluid column.

4.2.2 U- tube manometer

The U-tube manometer operates based on the principle of hydrostatic pressure, where the difference in
height of the liquid columns corresponds to the pressure difference being measured.

ρm = density of manometer fluid

Ρf = density of fluid transmitting the pressure

𝐴1 = 𝐴2

(Pf − Pa ) = gh(ρm − ρf )

You can incline manometers to lengthen scale.

4.2.3 Well- type manometer.

The well-type manometer measures pressure based on the difference in height of the manometric fluid
in the vertical tube, similar to a U-tube manometer but with the added benefit of the well's large cross-
sectional area, which keeps the fluid level in the well almost unchanged.

High pressure = Pf

Low pressure = Pa (atmospheric)

A1= right hand side area

A2= left hand side area

h’ is the displacement of the left hand side from the zero(reference line)

h′ A2 = (h − h′ )A1

Datum is measured when pressure is the same on either side

A2
(Pf − Pa ) = h′ g( + 1)(ρm− ρf )
A1

A2
The left hand side is usually graded so A1
is already accounted for in the scale.

4.2.4 Manometer used as a barometer - (Fortin Barometer) well-type.

A Fortin barometer is a specific type of mercury barometer that combines features of both a well-type
manometer and a traditional barometer. It is used to measure atmospheric pressure with high precision
and is named after its inventor, Jean Nicolas Fortin. The Fortin barometer is distinguished by its
adjustable mercury reservoir, which allows for accurate readings of atmospheric pressure.
 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐

4.2.5 Elastics types

4.2.5.1 Bourden Tube

1) The end is connected to a spring loaded linkage and pointer.

2) Strain gauges are used to detect deflection.
3) LVDT-linearity variable differential transformer to detect end deflection

4.2.5.2 Diaphragm gauge

The diaphragm essentially consists of a thin corrugated disk. Displacement is caused by a pressure
differential which can be measured by strain gauge or a change in capacitance. The gauge is not linear
for a large range. This Gauge can be used for transient measurements.

4.2.5.3 Bellows gauge

Used for displacement measurements

4.2.5.4 Measurement from a container under stress

This is done using a strain gauge attached to the cylinder under stress.
4.2.6 Comparison of Pressure Gauges

Choosing the right pressure gauge depends on the specific requirements of the application, including
the pressure range, accuracy, durability, and environmental conditions.

• Bourdon Tube Gauges are versatile and durable, suitable for a wide range of industrial
applications but are less accurate for low-pressure measurements.
• Diaphragm Gauges are excellent for low-pressure and corrosive environments, offering high
accuracy but with a limited pressure range.
• Capsule Gauges are specialized for very low-pressure measurements, particularly with gases,
and are not suited for high-pressure environments.
• Digital Pressure Gauges offer the highest accuracy and ease of use, with additional features like
data logging, but come at a higher cost and require a power source.
• Manometers provide simple, accurate readings for low-pressure applications and are ideal for
laboratory and calibration purposes, though they are not suited for high-pressure environments.

4.3 Tutorial Questions

Temperature Measurement Devices

5. A resistance thermometer is made of platinum and has a resistance of 50 Ω at 20℃.

a) Find the melting point of indium when the device is immersed in a vessel containing
indium at its melting point, with a resistance of 76.8 Ω. [157℃]

b) The indium is heated further until it reaches a temperature of 235℃, estimate the
ratio of the new current in the platinum to the current 𝐼𝑚𝑝 at the melting point,
assuming the coefficient of resistivity doesn’t change significantly with temperature.
[0.766]
 6. A thermistor at 25℃ has resistance of 10 kΩ; at 100℃, the resistance is 816.8 Ω.
a) Determine the value of R (to the nearest kΩ) such that 𝑣0 = 15 V when the
temperature is 100℃. [112 kΩ]

b) What is the output voltage at 25℃? [8.1 V]

Pressure Measurement Devices

7. The U-tube manometer measures the pressure difference between two pipes A and B
carrying fluid P. the U-tube contains mercury (Fluid Q). Calculate the pressure difference
if ℎ = 1.5 m, ℎ2 = 0.75 m and ℎ1 = 0.5 m. Fluid P is water with density 1000 kg/m3 and
the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6. [54445.5 N/m2]

8. The U-tube manometer shown below has two fluids, water and oil (𝑠 = 0.8). Find the
height difference between the free water surface and the free oil surface with no
applied pressure difference. [20 mm]
Formula Sheet
1
2 2 2 2
𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋
𝑊𝑋 = [( 𝑊1 ) + ( 𝑊2 ) + ⋯ ( 𝑊) ]
𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝑛

1
𝑥̅ =Σ𝑥
𝑛 𝑖
1 1
𝜎=[ Σ(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥̅ )2 ]2
𝑛−1
𝑛
2
[(𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)𝑖 − (𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)𝑖 ]2
𝑥 =∑
(𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒)𝑖
𝑖=1

Chauvenet’s Criterion for Rejecting a reading

𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥
Number of Reading
𝜎
1.15
2
1.38
3
1.54
4
1.65
5
1.73
6
1.8
7
1.96
10
2.13
15
P 0.995 0.990 0.975 0.950 0.900 0.750 0.500 0.250 0.100 0.050 0.025 0.010 0.005

F=

1 0.0393 0.0157 0.0982 0.0393 0.0158 0.102 0.455 1.32 2.71 3.84 5.02 6.63 7.88

2 0.0100 0.0201 0.0506 0.103 0.211 0.575 1.39 2.77 4.61 5.99 7.38 9.21 10.6

3 0.717 0.115 0.216 0.352 0.584 1.21 2.37 4.11 6.25 7.81 9.35 11.3 12.8

4 0.207 0.297 0.484 0.711 1.06 1.92 3.36 5.39 7.78 9.49 11.1 13.3 14.9

5 0.412 0.554 0.831 1.15 1.61 2.67 4.35 6.63 9.24 11.1 12.8 15.1 16.7

6 0.676 0.872 1.24 1.64 2.20 3.45 5,35 7.84 10.6 12.6 14.4 16.8 18.5

7 0.989 1.24 1.69 2.17 2.83 4.25 6.35 9.04 12/0 14.1 16.0 18.5 20.3

8 1.35. 1.65 2.18 2.73 3.49 5.07 7.34 10.2 13.4 15.5 17.5 20.1 22.0

9 1.73 2.09 2.70 3.33 4.17 5.90 8.34 11.4 14.7 16.9 19.0 21.7 23.6

10 2.16 2.56 3.25 3.94 4.87 6.74 9.34 12.5 16.0 18.3 20.5 23.2 25.2

11 2.60 3.05 3.82 4.57 5.58 7.58 10.3 13.7 17.3 19.7 21.9 24.7 26.8

12 3.07 3.57 4.40 5.23 6.30 8.44 11.3 14.8 18.5 21.0 23.3 26.2 28.3

13 3.57 4.11 5.01 5.89 7.04 9.30 12.3 16.0 19.8 22.4 24.7 27.7 29.8

14 4.07 4.66 5.63 6.57 7.79 10.2 13.3 17.1 21.1 23.7 26.1 29.1 31.3

15 4.60 5.23 6.26 7.26 8.55 11.0 14.3 18.2 22.3 25.0 27.5 30.6 32.8

16 5.14 5.81 6.91 7.96 9.31 11.9 15.3 19.4 23.5 26.3 28.8 32.0 34.3

17 5.70 6.41 7.56 8.67 10.1 12.8 16.3 20.5 24.8 27.6 30.2 33.4 35.7

18 6.26 7.01 8.23 9.39 10.9 13.7 17.3 21.6 26.0 28.9 31.5 34.8 37.2

19 6.84 7.63 8.91 10.1 11.7 14.6 18.3 22.7 27.2 30.1 32.9 36.2 38.6

20 7.43 8.26 9.59 10.9 12.4 15.5 19.3 23.8 28.4 31.4 34.2 37.6 40.0

21 8.03 8.90 10.3 11.6 13.2 16.3 20.3 24.9 29.6 32.7 35.5 38.9 41.4

22 8.64 9.54 11.0 12.3 14.0 17.2 21.3 26.0 30.8 33.9 36.8 40.3 42.8

23 9.26 10.2 11.7 13.1 14.8 18.1 22.3 27.1 32.0 35.2 38.1 41.6 44.2

24 9.89 10.9 12.4 13.8 15.7 19.0 23.3 28.3 33.2 36.4 39.4 43.0 45.6

25 10.5 11.5 13.1 14.6 16.5 19.9 24.3 29.3 34.4 37.7 40.6 44.3 46.9

26 11.2 12.2 13.8 15.4 17.3 20.8 25.3 30.4 35.6 38.9 41.9 45.6 48.3

27 11.8 12.9 14.6 16.2 18.1 21.7 26.3 31.5 36.7 40.1 43.2 47.0 49.6

28 12.5 13.6 15.3 16.9 18.9 22.7 27.3 32.6 37.9 41.3 44.5 48.3 51.0

29 13.1 14.3 16.0 17.7 19.8 23.6 28.3 33.7 39.1 42.6 45.7 49.6 52.3

30 13.8 15.0 16.8 18.5 20.6 24.5 29.3 34.8 40.3 43.8 47.0 50.9 53.7