Biomedical Sensors

Primary sensing element

Measured signal → first contact with the primary sensing element is called sensor or detector
First detected by primary sensor or detector.
Measurement is converted into an analogous electrical signal - Transducer.
Output of the sensor and detector → element is different analogous form (sound, voltage, pulses, vibration).
Output of transducer → electrical signal .
In many cases, the physical quantity is directly converted into an electrical quantity by a detector transducer.
The first stage of a measurement system is known as a detector transducer stage.

1
2
Variable conversion element
Output signal from primary element could be a mechanical or
electrical signal
Necessary to convert this output signal from the sensor to some other
suitable form without losing information
Output from the sensor is not suited to the direct measurement system.

For example, in ammeter, the output from the coil is current, so

there we place a magnet to get a deflection due to the current
passing in the coil. So here the magnet acts as a variable
conversion element, converting current into physical
movement which is the deflection and by measuring the amount
of deflection we can measure the amount of current.

• Measuring the amount of deflection from coils

• Unidirectional meter
Variable manipulation element
Variable manipulation means a change in numerical value of the signal. The function of a variable manipulation element is to manipulate the signal
presented to this element while preserving the original nature of the signal.
For example, a voltage amplifier acts as a variable manipulation element. The amplifier accepts a small voltage signal as input and produces an output signal
which is also voltage but of greater magnitude. The variable manipulation element could be either placed after the variable conversion element or it may precede
the variable conversion element.

Amplifier – Variable
Manipulation element
Signal conditioning element – Biomedical Signal

General Components of Signal Conditioning :

• Filters

• Baseline correction

• Amplifier
Data transmission element

This is used for instruments with physically separated primary and secondary elements
In such situations transmit data from one element to another is important.

The element that performs this function is called a Data Transmission Element.
For example: Satellites or the air planes are physically separated from the control stations at earth.

For guiding the movements of satellites or the air planes control stations send the radio by a complicated telemetry systems.
The signal conditioning and transmission stage is commonly known as Intermediate Stage.
Data presentation element

To convey the information about the quantity under measurement to the personnel handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, control, or analysis purposes.
The information conveyed must be in a convenient form.
In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are needed - May be analogue or digital indicating instruments
Examples: Ammeters, voltmeters, etc.

In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera and T.V. equipment; storage type C.R.T.,
printers, analogue and digital computers may be used. For control and analysis purpose computers and the control elements are
used.

The final stage in a measurement system is known as terminating stage.

Functional Elements of General Instrumentation

Vs
Medical Instrumentation
Functional Elements of Medical Instrumentation / Device
Functional Elements of Medical Instrumentation / Device
Example of Temperature Measurement Digital Thermometer

2 3

7 6
Advantages of
Electronic
Instrument
 Characteristics of measurement systems/
Measurement terminologies
• To choose the one most suited to a particular measurement
application, we have to know the system characteristics.

• The performance characteristics may be broadly divided

into two groups, namely ‘static’ and ‘dynamic’
characteristics
Types of characteristics of an instrument

Static characteristics
the performance criteria for the measurement of quantities that remain
constant, or vary only quite slowly.

Dynamic characteristics
the relationship between the system input and output when the
measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly.
Static characteristics

i) Accuracy vii) Resolution

ii) Precision viii) Threshold

iii) Sensitivity ix) Drift

iv) Linearity x) Stability

v) Reproducibility xi) Tolerance

vi) Repeatability xii) Range or span

1. Accuracy

Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measured value with the actual or true value
Maximum error = Measured value – True value * 100, of full scale reading.

Example 1: If the accuracy of a temperature indicator, with a full scale range of 0- 500o C is specified as ± 0.5%, it
indicates that the measured value will always be within ± 2.5 oC of the true value, if measured through a standard
instrument during the process of calibration.

Example 2: if it indicates a reading of 250oC, the error will also be ± 2.5oC, i.e. ± 1% of the reading. Thus it is always
better to choose a scale of measurement where the input is near full-scale value.

Practically, true value is always difficult to get.

We use standard calibrated instruments in the laboratory for measuring true value if the variable.
 Accuracy depends on inherent limitations of instrument and
shortcomings in measurement process.

Unit of accuracy:
1. Percentage of true value (% of T.V.)
= (Measured value – True value) *100
True value

2. Percentage of Full Scale Deflection (% of fsd)

= (Measured value – True value) *100
Maximum Scale value
Classification of Accuracy
1. Point Accuracy – Point accuracy means the accuracy of the instrument is only at a
particular point on its scale. This accuracy does not give any information about the
general accuracy of the instrument.

2. Accuracy as Percentage of Scale Range – The uniform full scale range determines the
accuracy of the instrument.

Example : Consider the thermometer having the range up to 500ºC. The accuracy of the
thermometer is considered up to ±0.5, i.e. ±0.5 percent increases or decrease in the value
of the instrument is negligible. But if the reading is more or less than 0.5ºC, it is
considered the high-value error.

3. Accuracy as Percentage of True Value – Accuracy is determined by identifying the

measured value regarding their true value.

The accuracy of the instruments is neglected up to ±0.5 percent from the true value
2. Precision
Definition: The term precision means two or more values of the measurements are closed to each
other.

The value of precision differs because of the observational error. The precision is used for finding the
consistency or reproducibility of the measurement. The conformity and the number of significant figures
are the characteristics of the precision.

High precision means the result of the measurements are consistent or the repeated values of the
reading are obtained.

Low precision means the value of the measurement varies. But it is not necessary that the highly
precise reading gives the accurate result.

Example: Consider the 100V, 101V, 102V, 103V and 105V are the different readings of the voltages
taken by the voltmeter.

The readings are nearly close to each other but they are not exactly same because of the error.

The reading are close to each other then we say that the readings are precise.
3. Tolerance
• Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum error
that is to be expected in some value.
• The accuracy of some instruments is sometimes quoted as a tolerance figure.
• For instance, crankshafts are machined with a diameter tolerance quoted as so many
microns, and electric circuit components such as resistors have tolerances of perhaps
5%. One resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal value 1000Ω and
tolerance 5% might have an actual value anywhere between 950Ω and 1050Ω.

4. Range or span
The range or span of an instrument defines the minimum and
maximum values of a quantity that the instrument is designed to
measure.
Range: 54-520 g
5. Linearity
• It is normally desirable that the output reading
of an instrument is linearly proportional to the
quantity being measured.

• In the figure shown, the x marks show a plot

of the typical output readings of an instrument
when a sequence of input quantities are
applied to it.

• By fitting a straight line through these marks, it

is clear that the device can be considered
linear.

27
5. Linearity

• The non-linearity is then defined as

the maximum deviation of any of
the output readings (marked x)
from this straight line.

• Non-linearity is usually expressed as

a percentage of full-scale reading.

28
 6. Sensitivity of measurement
• The sensitivity of a measurement
device is defined as the ratio:

change in instrument output

change in measured quantity

• The sensitivity of measurement is

therefore the slope of the straight
line drawn in the previous slide.

29
Example
The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were measured at a range of
temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument in Ω/˚C.

Temperature (˚C) Resistance (Ω)

200 307
230 314
260 321
290 328
Solution:
• By plotting these values on a graph, the relationship between temperature and resistance is a straight
line.
• For a 30˚C change in temperature, the change in resistance is 7Ω. Hence the measurement sensitivity
is 7/30 = 0.233 Ω/ ˚C.

30