THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

School of Engineering
Chemical Engineering Department

(0915341)

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

1
 What Are The Transport Phenomena?
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The subject of transport phenomena

includes three closely related topics:

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Fluid Heat Mass
Dynamics Transfer Transfer

involves the deals with the concerned with the

transport of transport of transport of mass of 2
momentum energy various chemical species
 What Are The Transport Phenomena?
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• These three transport phenomena should, at the introductory level, be

studied together for the following reasons:
• They frequently occur simultaneously in industrial, biological, agricultural, and
meteorological problems; in fact, the occurrence of any one transport process by
itself is the exception rather than the rule.
• The basic equations that describe the three transport phenomena are closely
related. The similarity of the equations under simple conditions is the basis for

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

solving problems "by analogy."
• The mathematical tools needed for describing these phenomena are very similar.
Although it is not the aim of this book to teach mathematics, the student will be
required to review various mathematical topics as the development unfolds.
Learning how to use mathematics may be a very valuable by-product of studying
transport phenomena.
• The molecular mechanisms underlying the various transport phenomena are very
closely related. All materials are made up of molecules, and the same molecular
motions and interactions are responsible for viscosity, thermal conductivity, and 3
diffusion.
 Three Levels at which Transport
Phenomena can be Studied
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

4
 Three Levels at which Transport
Phenomena can be Studied
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At the Macroscopic level (a)

• We write down a set of equations called
the "macroscopic balances," which
describe how the mass, momentum,

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

energy, and angular momentum in the system
change because of the introduction and removal of
these entities via the entering and leaving streams, and because
of various other inputs to the system from the surroundings. No attempt is
made to understand all the details of the system.
• In studying an engineering or biological system it is a good idea to start with
this macroscopic description in order to make a global assessment of the 5
problem; in some instances, it is only this overall view that is needed.
 Three Levels at which Transport
Phenomena can be Studied
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

At the Microscopic level (b)

• We examine what is happening to
the fluid mixture in a small region within
the equipment.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• We write down a set of equations called the
"equations of change," which describe how the mass, momentum, energy,
and angular momentum change within this small region.
• The aim here is to get information about velocity, temperature, pressure, and
concentration profiles within the system.
• This more detailed information may be required for the understanding of
6
some processes.
 Three Levels at which Transport
Phenomena can be Studied
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At the Molecular level (c)

• We seek a fundamental understanding
of the mechanisms of mass, momentum,

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

energy, and angular momentum transport in
terms of molecular structure and intermolecular forces.
• Generally, this is the realm of the theoretical physicist or physical chemist, but
occasionally engineers and applied scientists have to get involved at this level.
• This is particularly true if the processes being studied involve complex
molecules, extreme ranges of temperature and pressure, or chemically 7
reacting systems.
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN
Relationship between Transport Phenomena

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN
Relationship between Transport Phenomena

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Principles of Momentum

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Transfer and Overall Balances
Chapter 2

10
 Introduction
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• The flow and behavior of fluids is important in many of the unit

operations in process engineering.

• Fluid: a substance that does not permanently resist distortion

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

and, hence, will change its shape.
• Gases
• Liquids Have the Characteristics of Fluids
• Vapors

11
 Introduction
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• In process industries
• Materials in fluid form
• Stored the principles governing
the flow of fluids
• Handled It is necessary to
become familiar with

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• Pumped
• Processed the equipment used

Typical Fluids

Water Air CO2 Oil Slurries Thick Syrups 12

 Types of Fluids
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Incompressible Fluid Compressible Fluid

• Inappreciably affected by • Gases are considered to be
changes in pressure. compressible fluids.
• Most liquids are incompressible.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

If gases are subjected to small percentage changes in pressure and
temperature, their density changes will be small

they can be considered to be incompressible 13

 Introduction
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• Like all physical matter, a fluid is composed of an extremely large

number of molecules per unit volume.
• A theory such as the kinetic theory of gases or statistical

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

mechanics treats the motions of molecules in terms of statistical
groups and not in terms of individual molecules.
• In engineering we are mainly concerned with the bulk or
macroscopic behavior of a fluid rather than the individual
14
molecular or microscopic behavior.
 Momentum Transfer
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• In momentum transfer we treat the fluid as a continuous

distribution of matter, or a “continuum.”
• Valid when the smallest volume of fluid contains a number of
molecules large enough that a statistical average is meaningful and

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

the macroscopic properties of the fluid (density, pressure, and so on)
vary smoothly or continuously from point to point.

Fluid Statics fluids at rest

Momentum Transfer
⇔ Fluid Mechanics 15
Fluid Dynamics fluids in motion
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Fluid Statics
Section 2.3

16

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

 Force, Units, and Dimensions
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• Pressure:
• a surface force exerted by a fluid against the walls of its container.
• Pressure exists at any point in a volume of a fluid.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑭𝑭 [=] 𝑵𝑵 (𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 · 𝒎𝒎/𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐), 𝒎𝒎 [=] 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌, 𝒈𝒈 = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝒎𝒎/𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐

𝑭𝑭 [=]𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒇𝒇 , 𝒎𝒎 [=]𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒎𝒎 , 𝒈𝒈 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇/𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐,

𝒈𝒈𝒄𝒄 = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒎𝒎 · 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇/𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒇𝒇 · 𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐

1 Poundal = 1 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒎𝒎 · 𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇/𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 1 Dyne = 1 𝒈𝒈 · 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄/𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐

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EXAMPLE 2.2-1
 Pressure in a Fluid
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Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• This is the pressure on A2 due to the mass of the fluid above it.
• To get the total pressure P2 on A2, the pressure P0 on the top of
the fluid must be added:
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 Pressure in a Fluid
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• To calculate P1,
• The pressure difference between points 2
and 1 is

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

EXAMPLE 2.2-2
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 Head of a Fluid
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• A common method of expressing pressures is in terms of head in m or

feet of a particular fluid.
• This height or head in m or feet of the given fluid will exert the same
pressure as the pressures it represents.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

EXAMPLE 2.2-3

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 Pressure Measurement Devices
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• Simple U-tube manometer

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• P3 must be equal to P2 by the principles of hydrostatics: 𝒑𝒑𝟑𝟑 = 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐

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EXAMPLE 2.2-4
 Pressure Measurement Devices
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• Two-fluid U tube
• a sensitive device for measuring small heads
or pressure differences.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• If ρA and ρB are close to each other, the reading R is magnified.

EXAMPLE 2.2-5 22
 Pressure Measurement Devices
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• Bourdon pressure gage

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

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 Pressure Measurement Devices
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• Gravity separator for two immiscible liquids

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 Gravity separator for two immiscible liquids
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fixed by
position
of the
overflow

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

line for B

• A hydrostatic balance gives

• The position of the interface, hA1 depends on the ratio of the densities of 25
the two liquids and on the elevations hA2 and hT.
• Usually, hA2 is movable so that the interface level can be adjusted.
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Part One
Momentum Transport

26

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

General Molecular Transport

Equation for Momentum, Heat, and

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Mass Transfer
Section 2.3

27
 Introduction to Transport Processes
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• In molecular transport processes in • molecules are relatively far apart

general ⇔ the transfer • rate of transport of property should be
(movement) of a given property by relatively fast
Dilute fluids
molecular movement through a (gases
• few molecules are present to block the
transport or interact.
system [fluid (gas or liquid) or
solid].

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• Property: • molecules are close together
• transport or diffusion proceeds more
mass heat momentum Dense fluids slowly.
(liquids)
• Each molecule of a system has a
given quantity of the property
• molecules are even more close-packed
associated with it. than in liquids
• Difference of property • molecular migration is even more
concentration from one region to Solids restricted. 28
an adjacent region ⇔ net transport
of this property occurs.
 General Molecular Transport Equation
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driving force
rate of a transfer process =
resistance
we need a driving force to overcome a resistance
in order to transport a property

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• Ohm's law in electricity
voltage drop (driving force)
rate of flow of electricity =
resistance

29
 General Molecular Transport Equation
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driving force
rate of a transfer process =
resistance
𝑑𝑑Γ
ψ𝑧𝑧 = −𝛿𝛿

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• ψ𝑧𝑧 = flux of property = amount of property being transferred per unit
time per unit cross-sectional area perpendicular to the z direction of
flow [=] amount of property/s.m2
• 𝛿𝛿 = proportionality constant = diffusivity [=] m2/s
• Γ = concentration of the property [=] amount of property/m3 30
• 𝑧𝑧 = distance in the direction of flow [=] m
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

31

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

 General Molecular Transport Equation
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• At steady state, ψ𝑧𝑧 is constant

𝑧𝑧2 Γ2 𝛿𝛿 Γ 1 −Γ 2
ψ𝑧𝑧 ∫𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝛿𝛿 ∫Γ 𝑑𝑑Γ ψ𝑧𝑧 =
1 1 𝑧𝑧2 −𝑧𝑧1

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

unsteady-state gener al
proper ty balance
32

EXAMPLE 2.3-1
 General Property Balance for Unsteady State
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Rate of Rate of Rate of Rate of

Property Property Generation Accumulation
In Out of Property of Property

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

·1 R (Δ z · 1) 𝝏𝝏Γ
·1 (Δ z · 1)
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏

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 General Property Balance for Unsteady State
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Dividing by Δ𝑧𝑧 and letting Δ𝑧𝑧 go to zero,

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑑𝑑Γ
Substituting for ψ𝑧𝑧 = −𝛿𝛿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

For the case where no generation is present,

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General Equations for the Conservation of Momentum, Heat, or Mass

 Introduction to Molecular Transport
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Because of their kinetic energy the molecules are in rapid random

movement, often colliding with each other
Kinetic Theory of Gases

Molecular transport / molecular diffusion of a property (momentum, heat,

or mass) occurs in a fluid because of these random movements of
individual molecules.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Each individual molecule moves randomly in all directions and there are
fluxes in all directions.

If there is a concentration gradient of the property, there will be a net flux

of the property from high to low concentration.
35
This occurs because equal numbers of molecules diffuse in each direction
between the high-concentration and low concentration regions.
 THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN
𝒅𝒅Γ
ψ𝒛𝒛 = −𝜹𝜹
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

Introduction to Molecular Transport

Heat transport

Mass transport
Momentum transport

Fick's law
Fourier's law
Newton's law

36

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Viscosity of Fluids
Section 2.4

37

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

 Viscosity of Fluids
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• Newton's Law & Viscosity Laminar Flow

• When a fluid is flowing • At low velocities, the fluid tends to
flow without lateral mixing, and
through a closed channel adjacent layers slide past one

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

such as a pipe or another like playing cards.
• There are no cross currents
between two flat plates, perpendicular to the direction of
either of two types of flow, nor eddies or swirls of fluid.
flow may occur,
Turbulent Flow
depending on the
• At higher velocities eddies form, 38
velocity of this fluid: which leads to lateral mixing.
 Laminar Flow
𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 =
𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

These viscous forces arise from

Viscosity forces existing between the
• a property of a fluid which molecules in the fluid and are of
gives rise to forces that resist similar character as the shear
the relative movement of forces in solids.
adjacent layers in the fluid. An elastic solid deforms by an

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

amount proportional to the
A fluid can be applied stress.
distinguished from a
A fluid when subjected to a
solid by its behavior similar applied stress will
when subjected to a A fluid exhibits
continue to deform, i.e., to
stress/applied force. resistance to this
flow at a velocity that
stress.
increases with increasing 39
stress.
 Laminar Flow
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• A fluid is contained between

two infinite (very long and
very wide) parallel plates.
• The bottom plate is moving parallel to the top plate and at a constant
velocity ∆𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛 m/s faster relative to the top plate because of a steady

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

force 𝑭𝑭 newtons being applied.
• This force is called the viscous drag, and it arises from the viscous forces in
the fluid.
• The plates are ∆𝒚𝒚 m apart. Each layer of liquid moves in the z direction.
• The layer immediately adjacent to the bottom plate is carried along at the
velocity of this plate. The layer just above is at a slightly slower velocity,
each layer moving at a slower velocity as we go up in the 𝑦𝑦 direction. This
velocity profile is linear, with y direction. 40
• An analogy to a fluid is a deck of playing cards!
 Laminar Flow
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• It has been found experimentally for many fluids that

𝑭𝑭 ∆𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛
= −𝝁𝝁
𝑨𝑨 ∆𝒚𝒚
𝝁𝝁 = proportionality constant = viscosity of the fluid [=] Pa · s [=] kg/m · s
• Let ∆𝒚𝒚 → 𝟎𝟎,

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝒅𝒅𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛
𝝉𝝉𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 = −𝝁𝝁
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝝉𝝉𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 = 𝑭𝑭/𝑨𝑨 = shear stress = force per unit area [=] N/m2 [=] Pa
• In cgs system, viscosity [=] g/cm · s == centipoise (cp)

41

EXAMPLE 2.4-1
 EXAMPLE 2.4-1. Calculation of Shear Stress in a Liquid
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑭𝑭 𝒅𝒅𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛
𝝉𝝉𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 = = −𝝁𝝁
𝑨𝑨 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

42
 Momentum Transfer in a Fluid
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• Shear stress (𝝉𝝉𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 ) ⇔ a flux of z-directed momentum in the y direction = the rate of
flow of momentum per unit area.
• The units of momentum are mass × velocity [=] kg· m/s.
• The shear stress can be written as the amount of momentum transferred per second
per unit area:
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 � 𝒎𝒎/𝒔𝒔 momentum
𝝉𝝉𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 = =

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 � 𝒔𝒔 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 � 𝒔𝒔
• Random motions of molecules in the faster-moving
layer send some of molecules into the slower-moving
layer, where they collide with the slower-moving molecules and tend to speed them
up or increase their momentum in the z direction.
• Molecules in the slower layer tend to retard those in the faster layer.
• This exchange of molecules between layers produces a transfer or flux of z-directed
momentum from high-velocity to low-velocity layers.
• The negative sign indicates that momentum is transferred down the gradient from 43
high- to low-velocity regions.
 Viscosities of Newtonian Fluids
𝒅𝒅(𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛 𝝆𝝆)
𝝉𝝉𝒚𝒚𝒛𝒛 = −𝝂𝝂
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
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• Newtonian fluids: fluids that follow Newton's law of viscosity

• For a Newtonian fluid, there is a linear relation between shear stress
𝒅𝒅𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛
𝝉𝝉𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 and velocity gradient (rate of shear).
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
⇒ Viscosity 𝝁𝝁 is a constant and independent of the rate of shear.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝒅𝒅𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛
• For non-Newtonian fluids, the relation between 𝝉𝝉𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 and is not
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
linear ⇒ Viscosity 𝝁𝝁 does not remain constant but is a function of
shear rate.
• Certain liquids do not obey this simple Newton's law. These are
primarily pastes, slurries, high polymers, and emulsions.
• The science of the flow and deformation of fluids is often called 44
rheology.
 Non-Newtonian Fluids
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• A fluid whose flow curve (shear stress

versus shear rate) is nonlinear or does not
pass through the origin,
• The apparent viscosity, shear stress divided
by shear rate, is not constant at a given
temperature and pressure but is dependent

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

on flow conditions:
Types of time-independent flow behavior
• Flow geometry
• Shear rate
• Sometimes even on the kinematic history of
the fluid element under consideration.
• Apparent viscosity is the ratio of shear
stress to shear rate, though the latter ratio
is a function of the shear stress or shear 45
rate and/or of time
Shear stress–shear rate for time-
dependent fluid behavior
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• fluids for which the rate of shear at any point is determined only
by the value of the shear stress at that point at that instant; these
fluids are variously known as ‘ time independent ’ , ‘ purely viscous
’ , ‘ inelastic ’ or ‘ generalized Newtonian fluids ’ (GNF);
• more complex fluids for which the relation between shear stress

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

and shear rate depends, in addition, upon the duration of shearing
and their kinematic history; they are called ‘ time-dependent fluids
’;
• Substances exhibiting characteristics of both ideal fluids and
elastic solids and showing partial elastic recovery, after
46
deformation; these are categorized as ‘ visco-elastic fluids ’ .
 Viscosities of Newtonian Fluids
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• Gases are Newtonian fluids.

• Viscosity of gases increases with temperature and is approximately
independent of pressure up to a pressure of about 1000 kPa.
• At higher pressures, the viscosity of gases increases with increase in

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

pressure.
• For example, the viscosity of N2 gas at 298 K approximately doubles in
going from 100 kPa to about 5 x 104 kPa.
• In liquids, the viscosity decreases with increasing temperature.
• Since liquids are essentially incompressible, the viscosity is not
47
affected by pressure.
 Viscosities of Newtonian Fluids
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

48
More complete tables of viscosities are given in Appendix A.2 (for water), Appendix A.3 (for inorganic
and organic liquids and gases ), and Appendix A.4 (for biological and food liquids).
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Types of Fluid Flow

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

and Reynolds Number
Section 2.5

49
 Types of Fluid Flow
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Laminar Flow
• When the velocity of flow is slow, the flow patterns are smooth.
• The layers of fluid seem to slide by one another without eddies or
swirls being present

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• Newton's law of viscosity holds

Turbulent Flow
• When the velocity is quite high, an unstable pattern is observed in
which eddies or small packets of fluid particles are present moving
in all directions and at all angles to the normal line of flow. 50

• Eddies are present giving the fluid a fluctuating nature.

 Reynold’s Experiment
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a) Laminar / Viscous flow

critical velocity

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

b) Turbulent flow

51
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN
Reynold’s Experiment

52

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

 Reynolds Number ↔ Dimensionless
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Density
ρ (kg/m )
3

Average 𝑉𝑉̇
v (m/s) =

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Velocity
𝐴𝐴
𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 =
Viscosity 𝝁𝝁
µ (Pa ⋅ s)
Tube
Diameter D (m) 53
 Reynolds Number ↔ Dimensionless
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• The instability of the flow that leads to disturbed / turbulent flow

is determined by the ratio of the kinetic or inertial forces to the
viscous forces in the fluid stream.
• Inertial Forces ∝ 𝝆𝝆𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 Inertial Forces 𝝆𝝆𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
∝ 𝛍𝛍𝛍𝛍 = = 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• Viscous Forces ∝ 𝛍𝛍𝛍𝛍/𝑫𝑫 Viscous Forces 𝝁𝝁
𝑫𝑫

• For a straight circular pipe

 < 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ≡ Laminar flow
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹  𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ~ 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 ≡ Transition region
 > 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒 ≡ Turbulent flow 54
 P2.5-1. Reynolds Number for Milk Flow
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• Whole milk at 293 K having a density of 1030 kg/m3 and viscosity of 2.12 cp is
flowing at the rate of O.605 kg/s in a glass pipe having a diameter of 63.5 mm.
a) Calculate the Reynolds number. Is this turbulent flow?
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑉𝑉̇ 𝑚𝑚/𝜌𝜌
̇
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = ,𝑣𝑣 = = 𝜋𝜋 = 0.185 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝜇𝜇 𝐴𝐴 𝐷𝐷2
4

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 1030 × 0.185 × 0.0635
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = −3 = 5707 == 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭
𝜇𝜇 2.12 × 10
b) Calculate the flow rate needed in m3/s for a Reynolds number of 2100
and the velocity in m/s.
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 × 𝜇𝜇 2100 × 2.12 × 10−3
𝑣𝑣 = = = 0.068 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 1030 × 0.0635 55
𝜋𝜋 2 𝜋𝜋
̇
⇒ 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝐷𝐷 𝑣𝑣 = (0.0635)2 × 0.068 = 2.16 × 10−4 𝑚𝑚3 /𝑠𝑠
4 4
 P2.3-2 Mass Balance for Flow of Sucrose Solution
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

56
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Overall Mass Balance

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

and Continuity Equation
Section 2.6

57
 Introduction and Simple Mass Balances
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Simple mass / material balances:

𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 = 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 + 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚
• At steady state:
𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 = 𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫𝐫 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝒎𝒎 = 𝝆𝝆𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 = 𝝆𝝆𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐
Often, 𝒗𝒗𝝆𝝆 is expressed as 𝑮𝑮 = 𝒗𝒗𝝆𝝆, where 𝑮𝑮 is mass velocity or mass flux. 58
 EXAMPLE 2.6-1. Flow of Crude Oil and Mass Balance
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

59

EXAMPLE 2.6-1. (pg. 51) (pg. 892 – Appendix

 Control Volume for Balances
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Laws for the conservation of mass, energy, and momentum are all
stated in terms of a system, and these laws give the interaction of
a system with its surroundings.
• A system is defined as a collection of fluid of fixed identity.
• In flow of fluids, individual particles are not easily identifiable.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

 attention is focused on a given space through which the fluid flows
rather than to a given mass of fluid.
 Used method: select a control volume, which is a region fixed in
space through which the fluid flows.

60
 Overall Mass-Balance Equation
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

rate of mass output rate of mass input rate of mass accumulation

− +
from control volume to control volume in control volume
rate of mass generation
=
in control volume

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

rate of mass 𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
accumulation in = � 𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
control volume 𝑉𝑉

net mass eflux

= � 𝑣𝑣𝜌𝜌 cos 𝛼𝛼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
from control volume 61
𝐴𝐴
 Overall Mass-Balance Equation
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

� 𝑣𝑣𝜌𝜌 cos 𝛼𝛼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑣𝑣𝜌𝜌 cos 𝛼𝛼2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝑣𝑣𝜌𝜌 cos 𝛼𝛼1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 − 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝝆𝝆𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴2 𝐴𝐴1

• For a control volume where

no mass is being generated:

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 − 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝝆𝝆𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 + =0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• And in general:
𝑑𝑑𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖
𝒎𝒎𝒊𝒊𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝒊𝒊𝟏𝟏 + = 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
62
 Average Velocity to Use in Overall Mass Balance
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• If the velocity is not constant but varies across the surface area, an
average or bulk velocity is defined by

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

1
𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = � 𝑣𝑣𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴

63
 P2.6-2. Flow of Liquid in a Pipe and Mass Balance
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• A hydrocarbon liquid enters a simple flow system shown in Fig.2.6-1 at an

average velocity of 1.282 m/s, where A1 = 4.33 X 10-3 m2 and ρ1 = 902 kg/m3.
The liquid is heated in the process and the exit density is 875 kg/m3. The
cross-sectional area at point 2 is 5.26 x 10-3 m2. The process is steady state.
(a) Calculate the mass flow rate m at the entrance and exit.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

(b) Calculate the average velocity v in 2 and the
mass velocity G in 1

64
 P2.6-4. Bulk Velocity for Flow Between Parallel Plates
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝟏𝟏
𝒗𝒗𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 = � 𝒗𝒗𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
𝑨𝑨
𝑨𝑨

65
 P2.6-7 Mass Balance for Flow of Sucrose Solution
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

66
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Overall Momentum Balance

Section 2.8

67

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

 Overall Momentum Balance
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Momentum is a vector quantity, not like mass and energy.

• The total linear momentum vector 𝑷𝑷 of the total mass 𝑀𝑀 of a moving
fluid having a velocity of 𝒗𝒗 is
𝑷𝑷 = 𝑀𝑀𝒗𝒗 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘. 𝑚𝑚/𝑠𝑠

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• Newton’s second law: The time rate of change of momentum of a
system is equal to the summation of all forces acting on the system and
takes place in the direction of the net force.

𝑑𝑑𝑷𝑷
� 𝑭𝑭 = = 𝑁𝑁 68
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 Overall Momentum Balance
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• The equation for the conservation of momentum with respect to a

control volume:
sum of forces acting rate of momentum out rate of momentum
= −
on control volume of control volume into control volume
rate of accumulation of

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

+
momentum in control volume
The Generation Rate
• Momentum is not conserved, since it is
generated by external forces on the
system.
69
• If external forces are absent, momentum is conserved.
 Overall Momentum Balance
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• For a small element of area 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 on the control surface,

rate of momentum efflux = 𝒗𝒗 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 cos 𝛼𝛼 = 𝜌𝜌𝒗𝒗 𝒗𝒗 � 𝒏𝒏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
net momentum eflux
from control volume

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

= � 𝒗𝒗(𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌) cos 𝛼𝛼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝜌𝜌𝒗𝒗 𝒗𝒗 � 𝒏𝒏 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴

rate of accumulation 𝜕𝜕
of momentum in = � 𝜌𝜌𝒗𝒗𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
control volume 𝑉𝑉 70
 Overall Momentum Balance
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Overall linear momentum balance for a control volume:

𝜕𝜕
� 𝑭𝑭 = � 𝜌𝜌𝒗𝒗 𝒗𝒗 � 𝒏𝒏 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜌𝜌𝒗𝒗 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉
which is a vector equation 

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝜕𝜕
� 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = � 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 cos 𝛼𝛼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉

𝜕𝜕
� 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = � 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 cos 𝛼𝛼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉

𝜕𝜕 71
� 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = � 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 cos 𝛼𝛼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉
 The Force term, ∑ 𝑭𝑭𝒙𝒙
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• The Force term, ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 is composed of the sum of several forces:

1. Body force, 𝑭𝑭𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 , is the x-directed force caused by gravity acting on
the total mass 𝑀𝑀 in the control volume. 𝑭𝑭𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 = 𝑴𝑴𝒈𝒈𝒙𝒙 . 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = zero if
the x direction is horizontal.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

2. Pressure force, 𝑭𝑭𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 , is the x-directed force caused by the
pressure forces acting on the surface of the fluid system.
When the control surface cuts through the fluid, the pressure is taken to be
directed inward and perpendicular to the surface.
In some cases, part of the control surface may be a solid, and this wall is
included inside the control surface. Then there is a contribution to 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 from the
pressure on the outside of this wall, which is typically atmospheric pressure.
If gage pressure is used, the integral of the constant external pressure over the 72
entire outer surface can be automatically ignored.
 The Force term, ∑ 𝑭𝑭𝒙𝒙
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• The Force term, ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 is composed of the sum of several forces:

3. Friction force: When the fluid is flowing, an x-directed shear or
friction force 𝑭𝑭𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 , is present, which is exerted on the fluid by a solid
wall when the control surface cuts between the fluid and the solid
wall. In some or many cases this frictional force may be negligible

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

compared to the other forces and is neglected.
4. Solid surface force: In cases where the control surface cuts
through a solid, there is present force 𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 , which is the x
component of the resultant of the forces acting on the control
volume at these points. This occurs in typical cases when the
control volume includes a section of pipe and the fluid it contains. 73
This is the force exerted by the solid surface on the fluid.
 The Force term, ∑ 𝑭𝑭𝒙𝒙
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

� 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥

𝜕𝜕
= � 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 cos 𝛼𝛼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝐴𝐴 𝑉𝑉

Similar equations can be written for the y and z directions

74
 Overall Momentum Balance in Flow System
in One Direction
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• For a fluid flowing at steady state in the control volume in the x

direction, with 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 :

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

� 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 cos 𝛼𝛼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴
• Integrating with cos 𝛼𝛼 = ±𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 and 𝜌𝜌𝐴𝐴 = 𝑚𝑚/𝑣𝑣𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥22 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥21
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚 − 𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 75
 Overall Momentum Balance in Flow System
in One Direction
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥22 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥21
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚 − 𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
If the velocity is not constant and varies across the surface area,
1

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = � 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴
𝐴𝐴
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 0.95 − 0.99 for turbulent flow
= , 𝛽𝛽 = �
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝛽𝛽 0.75 for laminar flow (see EXAMPLE 2.8−1)
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝𝑝1 𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑝𝑝2 𝐴𝐴2 , 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 will be neglected, 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0 (gravity is acting
only in the y direction)
76
 Overall Momentum Balance in Flow System
in One Direction
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥22 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥21
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 + 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = 𝑚𝑚 − 𝑚𝑚
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝𝑝1 𝐴𝐴1 − 𝑝𝑝2 𝐴𝐴2 , 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 will be neglected

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 0 (gravity is acting only in the y-direction)
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥2 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣
= , and setting 𝛽𝛽 = 1.0
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝛽𝛽
𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 + 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏
• 𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 is the force exerted by the solid on the fluid.
• The force of the fluid on the solid (reaction force) is the negative of 77
this or −𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 .
 EXAMPLE 2.8-2. Momentum Balance for Horizontal Nozzle
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 − 𝑭𝑭𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 + 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

78
 Overall Momentum Balance in Two Directions
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏

𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒎𝒎𝒕𝒕 𝒈𝒈

79
EXAMPLE 2.8-3. and 2.8-4.
 EXAMPLE 2.8-3. Momentum Balance in a Pipe Bend
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒎𝒎𝒕𝒕 𝒈𝒈
𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎, 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎
𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 + 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏
𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 + 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 + 𝒎𝒎𝒕𝒕 𝒈𝒈

𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚 80
𝑹𝑹 = 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐𝒙𝒙 + 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐𝒚𝒚 , 𝜽𝜽 = tan −𝟏𝟏
𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙
 EXAMPLE 2.8-4. Friction Loss in a Sudden Enlargement
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

1- Momentum balance between points 1 & 2

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 + 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏
• Control volume is selected so that it does
not include the pipe wall  𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 drops out
• And 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 = 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 , 𝒑𝒑𝟎𝟎 = 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 , 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 = 𝒗𝒗𝟎𝟎
 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟎𝟎 − 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐
Since 𝒎𝒎 = 𝝆𝝆𝑨𝑨𝟎𝟎 𝒗𝒗𝟎𝟎 and 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 = 𝑨𝑨𝟎𝟎 ⁄𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗𝟎𝟎 81
𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 −𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝑨𝟎𝟎
 = 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 −
𝝆𝝆 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐
 EXAMPLE 2.8-4. Friction Loss in a Sudden Enlargement
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

2- Mechanical energy balance between 0 & 2
𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 − 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟎𝟎
− � 𝑭𝑭 =
𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆
• Combining momentum and energy balance
equations:
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝒗𝒗𝟎𝟎 𝑨𝑨𝟎𝟎
� 𝑭𝑭 = 𝟏𝟏 − 82
𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐
 P2.8-1. Momentum Balance in a Reducing Bend
Water is flowing at steady state through
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

the reducing bend in Fig. 2.8-3. The angle

α2 = 90° (a right-angle bend). The
pressure at point 2 is 1.0 atm abs.
The flow rate is 0.020 m3/s and the
diameters at points 1 and 2 are 0.050 m and 0.030 m, respectively. Neglect
frictional and gravitational forces. Calculate the resultant forces on the bend in

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

newtons and lb-force. Use p = 1000 kg/m3.
𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏
𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒑𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒑𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒎𝒎𝒕𝒕 𝒈𝒈

83
 Overall Momentum Balance for Free Jet
Striking a Fixed Vane
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• For the curved vane (a):

𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 (𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏)
and neglecting the body force

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐
• Hence, 𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 and 𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚 are the force components of the vane on the
control volume fluid.
• The force components on the vane are −𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 and −𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚 .
84
 Overall Momentum Balance for Free Jet
Striking a Fixed Vane
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• For smooth flat vane (b):

𝑚𝑚1
𝑚𝑚2 = (1 + cos 𝛼𝛼2 )
2
𝑚𝑚1
𝑚𝑚3 = (1 − cos 𝛼𝛼2 )
2
• The resultant force exerted by the plate on the fluid must be normal to it:

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

resultant force = 𝑹𝑹 = 𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐
𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶

𝑹𝑹 = 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐𝒙𝒙 + 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐𝒚𝒚
𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑 (− 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 )
85
𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚 = 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑 (− 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 )
𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 = 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 = 𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑 (No energy loss)
 P2.8-3. Force of Water Stream on a Wall
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Water at 298 K discharges from a nozzle and travels horizontally hitting a flat vertical
wall. The nozzle has a diameter of 12 mm and the water leaves the nozzle with a flat
velocity profile at a velocity of 6.0 m/s. Neglecting frictional resistance of the air on
the jet, calculate the force in newtons on the wall.
𝑚𝑚1
𝑚𝑚2 = (1 + cos 𝛼𝛼2 )
2

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑚𝑚1
𝑚𝑚3 = (1 − cos 𝛼𝛼2 )
2
resultant force = 𝑹𝑹 = 𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐
𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶
𝑹𝑹 = 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐𝒙𝒙 + 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐𝒚𝒚
𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑 (− 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 )
86
𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚 = 𝒎𝒎𝟐𝟐 𝒗𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝒎𝒎𝟏𝟏 𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝜶𝜶𝟏𝟏 + 𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑 (− 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 )
 P2.8-6. Momentum Balance for Free Jet on a
Curved, Fixed Vane.
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

−2
A free jet having a velocity of 30.5 m/s and a diameter of 5.08 × 10 m is
deflected by a curved, fixed vane as in Fig. 2.8-5a. However, the vane is curved
downward at an angle of 60° instead of upward. Calculate the force of the jet on the
vane. The density is 1000 kg/m3.
𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 (𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐 − 𝟏𝟏) 𝑹𝑹𝒚𝒚 = 𝒎𝒎𝒗𝒗𝟏𝟏 𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝜶𝜶𝟐𝟐

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

87
Ans. −Rx = 942.8 N, − Ry = 1633 N
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Shell Momentum Balance and

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Velocity Profile in Laminar Flow
Section 2.9

88
 Shell Momentum Balance and
Velocity Profile in Laminar Flow
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Overall momentum balance does not tell about the details of what
happens inside the control volume.

• Here, a small control volume will be analyzed and then shrank to

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

differential size.
• Shell momentum balance using the momentum-balance concepts

• using the definition of viscosity, an expression for the velocity profile

inside the enclosure and the pressure drop will be obtained. 89
 Shell Momentum Balance Inside a Pipe
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Engineers often deal with the

flow of fluids inside a circular
conduit or pipe.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• Analysis:
• Horizontal section of pipe in which an incompressible Newtonian fluid is
flowing in one-dimensional, steady-state, laminar flow.
• The flow is fully developed.
• It is not influenced by entrance effects.
90
• the velocity profile does not vary along the axis of flow in the x direction.
 Shell Momentum Balance Inside a Pipe
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• At steady state the conservation

of momentum becomes as follows:

sum of forces acting

on control volume

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

rate of momentum out rate of momentum
= −
of control volume into control volume
• Pressure force = 𝑝𝑝𝐴𝐴|𝑥𝑥 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝|𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 = 𝑝𝑝(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ∆𝑟𝑟)|𝑥𝑥 − 𝑝𝑝(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ∆𝑟𝑟)|𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥
• Shear force = 𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ∆𝑥𝑥 |𝑟𝑟+∆𝑟𝑟 − 𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ∆𝑥𝑥 |𝑟𝑟 = net rate of momentum efflux
• Flow is fully developed ⇒ net convective momentum flux across the annular surface
at 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑥𝑥 + ∆𝑥𝑥 is zero & the terms are independent of 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 |𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 |𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 91
 Shell Momentum Balance Inside a Pipe
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• At steady state the conservation

of momentum becomes as follows:

Pressure force + Shear force = 0

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑝𝑝(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ∆𝑟𝑟)|𝑥𝑥 − 𝑝𝑝(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ∆𝑟𝑟)|𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 = 𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ∆𝑥𝑥 |𝑟𝑟+∆𝑟𝑟 − 𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 ∆𝑥𝑥 |𝑟𝑟

𝑟𝑟 (𝑝𝑝|𝑥𝑥 − 𝑝𝑝|𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 ) 𝑟𝑟𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 |𝑟𝑟+∆𝑟𝑟 − 𝑟𝑟𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 |𝑟𝑟

=
∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑟𝑟
In fully developed flow, the pressure gradient (∆𝑝𝑝/∆𝑥𝑥) is constant = (∆𝑝𝑝/𝐿𝐿), where
𝐿𝐿 = pipe length ⇒
𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∆𝑝𝑝 92
= 𝑟𝑟
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 𝐿𝐿
 Shell Momentum Balance Inside a Pipe
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

𝑑𝑑 𝑟𝑟𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ∆𝑝𝑝
= 𝑟𝑟
𝑑𝑑𝑟𝑟 𝐿𝐿
Separating variables and integrating,
∆𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶1
𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = +

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝐿𝐿 2 𝑟𝑟
𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ≠ ∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑟𝑟 = 0 → 𝐶𝐶1 = 0
∆𝑝𝑝 𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿
⇒ 𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟 ⇒ 𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟
2𝐿𝐿 2𝐿𝐿
⇒ momentum flux varies linearly
with the radius, and the maximum
93
value occurs at r = R at the wall
 Shell Momentum Balance Inside a Pipe
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿
𝜏𝜏𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟
2𝐿𝐿
Substituting Newton's law of viscosity
𝒅𝒅𝒗𝒗𝒙𝒙 𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿
𝝉𝝉𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = −𝝁𝝁 = 𝑟𝑟

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 2𝐿𝐿
Integrating using the boundary condition that at the wall, 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 0 at 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑅𝑅, we
obtain the equation for the velocity distribution
𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 2 𝑟𝑟 2
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅 1 −
4𝜇𝜇𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅
⇒ the velocity distribution is parabolic
94
 Shell Momentum Balance Inside a Pipe
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 2 𝑟𝑟 2
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅 1 −
4𝜇𝜇𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅
The average velocity 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 for
a cross section is found by summing
up all the velocities over the cross

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

section and dividing by the cross-sectional area

95
 Shell Momentum Balance Inside a Pipe
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

The maximum velocity for a pipe

occurs at 𝑟𝑟 = 0.

𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 2 𝑟𝑟 2
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅 1 −
4𝜇𝜇𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 2
⇒ 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑅𝑅
4𝜇𝜇𝐿𝐿

𝒗𝒗𝒙𝒙 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝒗𝒗𝒙𝒙 𝒂𝒂𝒂𝒂 =
𝟐𝟐 96
 Shell Momentum Balance Inside a Pipe
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

𝑝𝑝0 − 𝑝𝑝𝐿𝐿 2 𝑟𝑟 2
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑅𝑅 1 −
4𝜇𝜇𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅
The average velocity 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 for
a cross section is found by summing
up all the velocities over the cross

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

section and dividing by the cross-sectional area

97
 Shell Momentum Balance for Falling Film
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Falling films have been used to study

various phenomena in mass transfer,
coatings on surfaces, and so on.
• The control volume for the falling film
is a shell of fluid having a thickness of

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

∆𝑥𝑥 and a length of L in the vertical z
direction;
• sufficiently far from the entrance
and exit regions so that the flow is
not affected by these regions.
⇒ the velocity 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 (𝑥𝑥) does not
depend on position z. 98
 Shell Momentum Balance for Falling Film
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

System: ∆𝑥𝑥 thick, bounded in the 𝑧𝑧 direction

by the planes 𝑧𝑧 = 0 and 𝑧𝑧 = 𝐿𝐿, and
extending a distance 𝑊𝑊 in the y direction.
1. Momentum flux due to molecular
transport:

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

net efflux = 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 |𝒙𝒙+∆𝒙𝒙 − 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 |𝒙𝒙
2. Net convective momentum flux:
net efflux
= ∆𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛 𝝆𝝆𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛 |𝒛𝒛=𝑳𝑳 − ∆𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛 𝝆𝝆𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛 |𝒛𝒛=𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎𝟎
equal
3. Gravity force acting on the fluid: 99
gravity force = ∆𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 𝝆𝝆𝒈𝒈
 Shell Momentum Balance for Falling Film
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

sum of forces acting rate of momentum out rate of momentum

= −
on control volume of control volume into control volume
∆𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 𝝆𝝆𝒈𝒈 = 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 |𝒙𝒙+∆𝒙𝒙 − 𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 |𝒙𝒙 + 𝟎𝟎

Rearranging and letting ∆𝒙𝒙 → 𝟎𝟎,

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 |𝒙𝒙+∆𝒙𝒙 − 𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 |𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙
= 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆 → = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
∆𝒙𝒙 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅
Boundary conditions:

at 𝑥𝑥 = 0, 𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 = 𝟎𝟎 at the free liquid surface,

100
and at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥, 𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 = 𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 𝒗𝒗 → 𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
 Shell Momentum Balance for Falling Film
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• For a Newtonian fluid using Newton's law of viscosity,

and 𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆

𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Boundary conditions:

at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝛿𝛿, 𝒗𝒗𝒙𝒙 = 𝟎𝟎

101
 Shell Momentum Balance for Falling Film
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• The maximum velocity occurs at 𝑥𝑥 = 0

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• Average velocity:

𝟐𝟐
= 𝒗𝒗𝒛𝒛 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
𝟑𝟑
102
Laminar flow occurs for Re < 1200.
 Shell Momentum Balance for Falling Film
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

103

𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 = 𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆𝝆
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

104
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

105
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

106
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Differential Equations Of Continuity
Chapter 3
Section 3.6
107
 Differential Equations of Continuity
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Overall mass and momentum balances allowed us to solve many

elementary problems on fluid flow.
• balances done on a control volume
• Overall balances do not require knowledge of what goes on inside

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

the finite control volume.
• To advance in studying these flow systems, must investigate in
greater detail what goes on inside this finite control volume.
• use a differential element for a control volume
• differential balances in a single phase and integrate to the phase
108
boundary using the boundary conditions.
 Differential Equations of Continuity
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Differential-momentum-balance equation is based on Newton's

second law
• allows to determine the way velocity varies with position and time
• allows to determine the pressure drop in laminar flow.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• The equation of momentum balance can be used for turbulent
flow with certain modifications.
• Often these conservation equations are called equations of
change, since they describe the variations in the properties of the
109
fluid with respect to position and time:
 Types of Time Derivatives & Vector Notation
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

1. Partial time derivative: the local change of fluid property with

time at a fixed-point x, y, and z.
𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌
• Example: = partial time derivative of density 𝜌𝜌.
𝜕𝜕𝑡𝑡
2. Total time derivative.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑑𝑑𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= + + +
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
“the density is a function of t and of the velocity components 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, and 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 at which the observer is moving”
3. Substantial time derivative: derivative that follows the motion
𝐷𝐷𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 110
= + 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = + (𝐯𝐯 � 𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌)
𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
 Types of Time Derivatives & Vector Notation
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

4. Scalars: quantities such as concentration, temperature, length,

volume, time, and energy. They have magnitude but no direction.
5. Vectors. Velocity, force, momentum, and acceleration are considered
vectors since they have magnitude and direction. They are written in
boldface letters in textbooks, e.g., 𝐯𝐯 for velocity.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

The vector 𝑩𝑩 is represented by its three projections 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 , 𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦 , and 𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧 on
the x, y, and z axes and
𝐁𝐁 = 𝐢𝐢𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 + 𝐣𝐣𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦 + 𝐤𝐤𝐵𝐵𝑧𝑧
𝑟𝑟𝐁𝐁 = 𝐁𝐁𝑟𝑟
𝐁𝐁 � 𝐂𝐂 = 𝐂𝐂 � 𝐁𝐁
𝐁𝐁 � 𝐂𝐂 𝐃𝐃 ≠ 𝐁𝐁(𝐂𝐂 � 𝐃𝐃)
𝐁𝐁 � 𝐂𝐂 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 cos φ𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 111
 Types of Time Derivatives & Vector Notation
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

6. Differential operations with scalars and vectors. The gradient or

"grad" of a scalar field is
𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜌𝜌
𝛁𝛁𝜌𝜌 = 𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣 + 𝐤𝐤
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
The divergence or "div" of a vector 𝐯𝐯 is

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧
(𝛁𝛁 � 𝐯𝐯) = + +
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
The Laplacian of a scalar field is
2 𝜌𝜌 2 𝜌𝜌 2 𝜌𝜌
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
𝛁𝛁 𝟐𝟐 𝜌𝜌 = 2 + 2 + 2
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
112
 Types of Time Derivatives & Vector Notation
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Other useful operations:

𝛻𝛻𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝑟𝑟𝛻𝛻𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠𝛻𝛻𝑟𝑟

(𝛻𝛻 � 𝑠𝑠𝐯𝐯) = (𝛻𝛻𝑠𝑠 � 𝐯𝐯) + 𝑠𝑠(𝛻𝛻 � 𝐯𝐯)

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝜕𝜕𝑠𝑠 𝜕𝜕𝑠𝑠 𝜕𝜕𝑠𝑠
𝐯𝐯 � 𝛻𝛻𝛻𝛻 = 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

113
 Differential Equation of Continuity
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Derivation of equation of continuity:

• pure fluid flowing through stationary
volume element
 Differential Equation of Continuity
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

For constant density:

115
EXAMPLE 3.6-1.
 Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Continuity Equation in Spherical Coordinates

116
 P3.6-1. Equation of Continuity in a Cylinder.
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Fluid having a constant density ρ is flowing in the z direction through

a circular pipe with axial symmetry. The radial direction is designated
by r.
(a) Using a cylindrical shell balance with dimensions 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑,
derive the equation of continuity for this system.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

(b) Use the equation of continuity in cylindrical coordinates to derive
the equation.

117
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

118
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Differential Equations of Momentum

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Transfer or Motion
Section 3.7

119
 Differential Equation of Momentum Transfer
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Equation of motion
== Equation for the conservation-of-momentum equation
rate of rate of
−
momentum in momentum out
sum of forces rate of momentum
+ =
acting on system accumulation

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• Considering the x-component of each term:
• Net Convective x-momentum flow into the volume element ∆𝒙𝒙∆𝒚𝒚∆𝒛𝒛 is
𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝒚𝒚∆𝒛𝒛
+ 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 − 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 ∆𝒙𝒙∆𝒛𝒛
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦+∆𝑦𝑦
+ 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧 − 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧+∆𝑧𝑧 ∆𝒙𝒙∆𝒚𝒚
𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = concentration [=] momentum/𝑚𝑚3
120
𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = momentum flux [=] momentum/s·𝑚𝑚2
 Differential Equation of Momentum Transfer
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Considering the x-component of each term:

• Net x-component of momentum by Molecular transfer is

𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝒚𝒚∆𝒛𝒛 + 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦

− 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦+∆𝑦𝑦
∆𝒙𝒙∆𝒛𝒛

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

+ 𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧 − 𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 𝑧𝑧+∆𝑧𝑧 ∆𝒙𝒙∆𝒚𝒚
𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 = x direction shear stress on the y face
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = nomal stress on the x face
• net fluid pressure force:
𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥 − 𝑝𝑝𝑥𝑥+∆𝑥𝑥 ∆𝒚𝒚∆𝒛𝒛 121
 Differential Equation of Momentum Transfer
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Considering the x-component of each term:

• Gravitational force in the x direction is
𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑥𝑥 ∆𝒙𝒙∆𝒚𝒚∆𝒛𝒛
𝑔𝑔𝑥𝑥 = x component of the gravitational vector 𝐠𝐠

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• Rate of Accumulation of x momentum in the element is:
𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
∆𝒙𝒙∆𝒚𝒚∆𝒛𝒛
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
• Substituting, dividing by ∆𝒙𝒙∆𝒚𝒚∆𝒛𝒛, and taking the limit as ∆𝒙𝒙, ∆𝒚𝒚, ∆𝒛𝒛 → 𝟎𝟎:

𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝒑𝒑 122
=− + + − + + − + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑥𝑥
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙
 Differential Equation of Momentum Transfer
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• x-component of the differential equation of motion.

𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝒑𝒑
=− + + − + + − + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑥𝑥
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙
• Using the equation of continuity:
𝝏𝝏𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧
=− + +

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛
• Equations of motion for the x, y, and z components are obtained:
𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝒑𝒑
𝜌𝜌 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 =− + + − + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑥𝑥
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙
𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝝏𝝏𝒑𝒑
𝜌𝜌 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 =− + + − + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑦𝑦
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚
𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑧𝑧 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝝏𝝏𝒑𝒑 123
𝜌𝜌 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 =− + + − + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑧𝑧
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛
 Equations of Motion for Newtonian Fluids
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Shear-stress components for

in cylindrical
coordinates
Newtonian fluids

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

In rectangular
coordinates

in spherical
coordinates
124
 Equations of Motion for Newtonian Fluids
with Varying Density and Viscosity
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• For the x-component of momentum, the general equation of motion for a

Newtonian fluid with varying density and viscosity is:

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

125
• Similar equations are obtained for the y and z components of momentum.
 Equations of Motion for Newtonian Fluids
with Constant Density and Viscosity
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝒑𝒑
=− + + − + + − + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑥𝑥
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙
𝒅𝒅𝒗𝒗𝒙𝒙
• For constant viscosity fluid, Newton’s law applies: 𝝉𝝉𝒚𝒚𝒚𝒚 = −𝝁𝝁
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Equation of motion in rectangular coor dinates:

𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝜌𝜌 + 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 = 𝝁𝝁 𝟐𝟐
+ 𝟐𝟐
+ 𝟐𝟐
− + 𝜌𝜌𝑔𝑔𝑥𝑥
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏𝒛𝒛 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏

126
• Similar equations are obtained for the y and z components.
 EXAMPLE 3.8-3. Laminar Flow in a Circular
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN
Tube

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

127
 EXAMPLE 3.8-3. Laminar Flow in a Circular
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN
Tube

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

128
 P3.6-1. Equation of Continuity in a
Fluid having a constant density ρ is flowing in the z direction through a
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Cylinder.
circular pipe with axial symmetry. The radial direction is designated by r.
(a) Using a cylindrical shell balance with dimensions dr and dz, derive
the equation of continuity for this system.
(b) Use the equation of continuity in cylindrical coordinates to derive the
equation.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

129
 P3.8-1. Average Velocity in a Circular Tube.
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN
Using Eq. (3.8-17) for the velocity in a circular tube as a function of
radius r,

derive Eq. (3.8-19) for the average velocity.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

130
 P3.8-4. Velocity Profile in Falling Film and
Differential Momentum Balance.
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Newtonian liquid is flowing as a falling film on

an inclined flat surface. The surface makes an
angle of θ with the vertical. Assume that in this
case the section being considered is sufficiently
far from both ends that there are no end effects

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

on the velocity profile. The thickness of the film
is δ. The apparatus is similar to Fig. 2.9-3 but is not vertical. Do as follows.
(a) Derive the equation for the velocity profile of 𝑣𝑣𝑧𝑧 as a function of 𝑥𝑥 in
this film using the differential momentum balance equation.
(b) What are the maximum velocity and the average velocity?
(c) What is the equation for the momentum flux distribution of 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ? 131
[Hint: Can Eq. (3.7-19) be used here?]
 P3.8-4. Velocity Profile in Falling Film and
Differential Momentum Balance.
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

132
 P3.8-4. Velocity Profile in Falling Film and
Differential Momentum Balance.
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

133
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

134
 P3.8-2. Laminar Flow in a Cylindrical Annulus.
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN
Derive all the equations given in Example 3.8-4 showing all the steps.
Also, derive the equation for the average velocity vz,av. Finally, integrate to
obtain the pressure drop from z = 0 for p = p0 to z = L for p = pL.
Steady-state laminar flow inside the annulus
between Two concentric horizontal pipes

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

135
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

136
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Boundary-Layer Flow and

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Turbulence
Section 3.10

137
 Boundary-Layer Theory
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Boundary Layer: the region close to the solid surface.

• In the boundary-layer region, the fluid motion is greatly affected
by the solid surface.
• In the bulk of the fluid away from the boundary layer the flow can

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

often be adequately described by the theory of ideal fluids with
zero viscosity.
• However, in the thin boundary layer, viscosity is important.
• Since the region is thin, simplified solutions can be obtained for
the boundary-layer region.
• Prandtl originally suggested this division of the problem into two 138
parts, which has been used extensively in fluid dynamics.
 Boundary Layer for Flow Past Flat Plate
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Boundary-layer formation in the steady-state flow of a fluid past a

flat plate.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

At the points connected by the dashed line, L, the velocity is 99% of
139
the bulk velocity 𝑣𝑣∞
 Boundary Layer for Flow Past Flat Plate
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Boundary-layer formation in the steady-state flow of a fluid past a

flat plate.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣∞ 𝜌𝜌
• When 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 = < 5 × 105 , the flow is laminar
𝜇𝜇
140
the thickness δ of the boundary layer increases
with the 𝒙𝒙 as we move in the 𝒙𝒙 direction
 Boundary Layer for Flow Past Flat Plate
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Boundary-layer formation in the steady-state flow of a fluid past a

flat plate.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• When 5 × 105 < 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 < 3 × 106 , the flow is in the transition zone
141
 Boundary Layer for Flow Past Flat Plate
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Boundary-layer formation in the steady-state flow of a fluid past a

flat plate.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• When 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 > 3 × 106 , the flow is turbulent
When the boundary layer is turbulent, a thin viscous sublayer persists next to 142
the plate. The drag caused by the viscous shear in the boundary layers is
called skin friction: the only drag present for flow past a flat plate.
 Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Boundary-layer equations: When laminar flow is occurring in a boundary

layer, certain terms in the Navier-Stokes equations become negligible and can
be neglected.
• Thickness of boundary layer δ: the distance away from the surface where the
velocity reaches 99% of the free stream velocity.
• The concept of a relatively thin boundary layer leads to some important

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

simplifications of the Navier-Stokes equations.
• For two-dimensional laminar flow in the 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 directions of a fluid having a
constant density, for flow at steady state, when the body forces 𝑔𝑔𝑥𝑥 and 𝑔𝑔𝑦𝑦 are
neglected:
𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝟐𝟐
+ 𝟐𝟐
−
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 143
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝟐𝟐
+ 𝟐𝟐
−
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚
 Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• The continuity equation for two-dimensional flow becomes

𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 negligible in comparison
+ = 𝟎𝟎 with the other terms
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
Navier-Stokes

𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = + −
equations

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙 𝟐𝟐 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝟐𝟐 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝟐𝟐
+ 𝟐𝟐
−
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚
• All the terms containing 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 and its derivatives are small.
𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝟏𝟏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 𝟐𝟐
− 144
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
 Solution for
Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Since 𝑣𝑣∞ is constant, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is zero.

• The final boundary-layer equations reduce to
𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 =
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦
+ = 𝟎𝟎
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏
• Boundary condition:
• 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 = 0 at 𝑦𝑦 = 0,and 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 = 𝑣𝑣∞ at 𝑦𝑦 = ∞
• Solution of this problem for laminar flow over a flat plate giving
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 and 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 as a function of 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 was first obtained by Blasius
145
and later elaborated by Howarth.
 Solution for
Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Blasius reduced the two equations to a single ordinary differential equation

which is nonlinear.
• The equation could not be solved to give a closed form but a series solution
was obtained.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

• The results of Blasius work are as follows:
5.0𝑥𝑥 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
• Boundary-layer thickness δ is given approximately by 𝛿𝛿 = = 5.0
𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣∞
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
• Hence 𝛿𝛿 varies as 𝑥𝑥
• Skin friction 𝜏𝜏0 is calculated
from the shear stress at the
surface at 𝑦𝑦 = 0 for any 𝑥𝑥:
146
𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣∞
𝜏𝜏0 = 0.332𝜇𝜇𝑣𝑣∞
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
 Solution for
Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Total drag for a plate of length 𝐿𝐿 and width 𝑏𝑏 is given by:

𝐿𝐿
𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷 = 𝑏𝑏 � 𝜏𝜏0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
𝑣𝑣 2
3 ∞
𝐹𝐹𝐷𝐷 = 0.664𝑏𝑏 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝑣𝑣∞ 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
2

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝜇𝜇 1.328
where 𝐶𝐶𝐷𝐷 = 1.328 = (similar to Fanning friction factor f for pipes).
𝐿𝐿𝜌𝜌𝑣𝑣∞ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
• This CD equation applies only to the laminar boundary layer for 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 < 5 x 105.
• The results are valid only for positions where x is sufficiently far from the leading
edge so that x or L is much greater than δ.
• Experimental results on the drag coefficient to a flat plate confirm the validity of the
above equation.
• Boundary-layer flow past many other shapes has been successfully analyzed using 147
similar methods.
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

P3.10-2
P3.10-1

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

148
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

Boundary-Layer Flow and

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

Turbulence in Heat Transfer
Section 5.7A

149
 Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory
in Heat Transfer
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Laminar Flow of Fluid past a Flat Plate and Thermal Boundary Layer
• T∞ = temperature of fluid approaching the plate
• Ts = temperature of the plate at the surface.
• Starting with the differential energy balance:
𝝏𝝏𝑇𝑇 𝝏𝝏𝑇𝑇 𝝏𝝏𝑇𝑇 𝝏𝝏𝑇𝑇 k 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑇𝑇 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑇𝑇 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑇𝑇
+ 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 + 𝑣𝑣z = + 𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐𝟐

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝝏𝝏𝑡𝑡 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏z 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝝏𝝏x 𝟐𝟐 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚 𝝏𝝏z
• The flow is in 𝑥𝑥 and y directions → 𝑣𝑣z = 0
𝝏𝝏𝑇𝑇
• The flow is at steady state → = 0
𝝏𝝏𝑡𝑡
• Conduction is neglected in the 𝒙𝒙
𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑇𝑇 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑇𝑇
and z directions → = 𝟐𝟐 =0
𝝏𝝏x𝟐𝟐 𝝏𝝏z
𝝏𝝏𝑇𝑇 𝝏𝝏𝑇𝑇 k 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑇𝑇 150
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 =
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
 Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory
in Heat Transfer
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

𝝏𝝏𝑇𝑇 𝝏𝝏𝑇𝑇 k 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑇𝑇

𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 =
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
• The simplified momentum balance equation used in the velocity
boundary-layer derivation

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝁𝝁 𝝏𝝏𝟐𝟐 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 =
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝜌𝜌 𝝏𝝏𝒚𝒚𝟐𝟐
• The continuity equation used previously is
𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝝏𝝏𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦
+ = 𝟎𝟎
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 151
 Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory
in Heat Transfer
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Boundary Conditions used by Blasius for solving the case of laminar boundary-
layer flow:
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣𝑦𝑦 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
= = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 = 0, = 1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑦𝑦 = ∞
𝑣𝑣∞ 𝑣𝑣∞ 𝑣𝑣∞
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥
=1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = 0
𝑣𝑣∞
• Blasius solution can be applied similarly,
k
if 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 =
𝑝𝑝
 Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory
in Heat Transfer
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• The transfer of momentum and heat are directly analogous and the
boundary-layer thickness δ for the velocity profile (hydrodynamic boundary
layer) and the thermal boundary-layer thickness δT are equal.
𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥 𝑣𝑣∞ 𝑥𝑥𝑣𝑣∞ 𝜌𝜌
= 0.332 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 , 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 =
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝑥𝑥 𝜇𝜇

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

𝑦𝑦=0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 0.332
= 𝑇𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦=0
𝑥𝑥
• The convective equation can be related
to the Fourier equation by the following: ℎ𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
= 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑥𝑥 = 0.332 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
𝑞𝑞𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑘𝑘
= ℎ𝑥𝑥 𝑇𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 = −𝑘𝑘 153
𝐴𝐴 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑦𝑦=0
 Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory
in Heat Transfer
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Pohlhausen showed that the relation between the hydrodynamic and thermal
boundary layers for fluids with P𝑟𝑟 > 0.6 is approximately:
δ
= 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃1/3
δ 𝑇𝑇
• As a result, the equation for the local heat-transfer coefficient is
ℎ𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

= 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑥𝑥 = 0.332𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 1/2 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃1/3
𝑘𝑘
• The equation for the mean heat-transfer coefficient ℎ from 𝑥𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿 is for a
plate of width 𝑏𝑏 and area 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏,
𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 𝑘𝑘
ℎ = � ℎ𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.664 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 1/2 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃1/3
𝐴𝐴 0 𝐿𝐿
ℎ𝐿𝐿
= 0.664𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 1/2 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃1/3
𝑘𝑘
• This laminar boundary layer on smooth plates holds for Re < 5x105. 154
• Fluid properties are evaluated at film temperature 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 = (𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠 + 𝑇𝑇∞ )/2.
 P5.7-1. Thermal and Hydrodynamic Boundary
Layer Thicknesses
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Air at 294.3 K and 101.3 kPa with a free stream velocity of 12.2 m/s is
flowing parallel to a smooth flat plate held at a surface temperature of
383 K. Do the following.
(a) At the critical 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 5 × 105 , calculate the critical length 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐿𝐿 of
the plate, the thickness δ of the hydrodynamic boundary layer, and

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

the thickness δT of the thermal boundary layer. Note that the Prandtl
number is not 1.0.
(b) Calculate the average heat-transfer coefficient over the plate covered
by the laminar boundary layer.

155
 P5.7-2. Boundary Layer Thicknesses and Heat
Transfer
THE UNIVERSITY OF JORDAN

• Air at 37.8 °C and 1 atm abs flows at a velocity of 3.05 m/s parallel to a
flat plate held at 93.3 °C . The plate is 1 m wide. Calculate the following
at a position 0.61 m from the leading edge.
(a) The thermal boundary layer thickness δT, and the hydrodynamic
boundary layer thickness δ.

Dr. Linda Al-Hmoud

(b) Total heat-transfer from the plate.

156