Terminologies

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General Terms

●​ Trait – Is observable characteristics determined by specific segments of DNA called

genes. It is a characteristic or feature of an organism (e.g., eye color, height).
●​ Heredity – The passing of traits from parents to offspring through genetic material.
●​ Genetics – The study of heredity and variation in organisms.
●​ Nucleus – A membrane-enclosed organelle within a cell that contains the chromosomes
●​ Chromosome – A variant of gene controlling the same trait found inside the nucleus of
the cell.
●​ DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) – A double helix molecule that contains genetic
instructions for growth, development, and reproduction. The sides of the “ladder” are
made up of sugar and phosphate molecules. The steps of the ladder are made of
nitrogen base pairs.
●​ Gene – A DNA segment containing instructions for making a protein and determining
traits.
●​ Allele – A package of DNA with part or all of the genetic material of an organism that
determines specific traits.
●​ Histones – Proteins that help package and organize DNA into chromosomes.
●​ Parts of Chromosomes:
○​ Centromere – The region where sister chromatids are joined.
○​ Telomere – The protective end of a chromosome that prevents deterioration.
○​ Chromatid – One half of a duplicated chromosome.
○​ Genes – Segments of DNA that code for proteins and determine traits.
○​ Short arm/p arm and Long arm/q arm.

●​ Cell Division – The process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter
cells.

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 ●​ Chromatin – The loose, uncondensed form of DNA found in the nucleus during
interphase.
●​ Sister Chromatids – Identical copies of a chromosome, joined together by a
centromere.
●​ Centromere – The region where sister chromatids are attached.
●​ Cytokinesis – The division of the cytoplasm, completing the cell division process.

Cell Cycle-Related Terms

●​ Interphase – The longest phase of the cell cycle, where the cell grows and prepares for
division.
●​ G1 Phase – The first stage of interphase where the cell grows and performs normal
functions.
●​ S Phase – The stage where DNA replication occurs.
●​ G2 Phase – The final preparation phase before mitosis begins.
●​ M Phase – The mitotic phase, where nuclear division occurs.

Mitosis-Specific Terms

●​ Spindle Fibers – Microtubules that help separate chromosomes during mitosis.

●​ Centrioles – Organelles that organize spindle fibers in animal cells.
●​ Kinetochore – A protein structure on the centromere where spindle fibers attach.
●​ Cleavage Furrow – The indentation in the cell membrane during cytokinesis in animal
cells.

Meiosis-Specific Terms

●​ Homologous Chromosomes – A pair of chromosomes (one from each parent) that

contain the same genes.
●​ Diploid (2n) – A cell with two sets of chromosomes (one from each parent).
●​ Haploid (n) – A cell with one set of chromosomes (gametes like sperm and egg).
●​ Crossing Over – The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes
during Prophase I of meiosis.
●​ Synapsis – The pairing of homologous chromosomes during Prophase I.
●​ Tetrad – A group of four chromatids formed when homologous chromosomes pair up
during meiosis.
●​ Independent Assortment – The random separation of homologous chromosomes
during Meiosis I, increasing genetic variation.
●​ Gametes – Reproductive cells (sperm and egg) formed through meiosis.
●​ Zygote – A fertilized egg cell formed when two gametes combine.

Cell Cycle Regulation & Abnormalities (Additional Information)

●​ Cyclins & CDKs – Proteins that regulate the cell cycle.

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 ●​ Apoptosis – Programmed cell death, a normal process to remove damaged or
unneeded cells.
●​ Cancer – Uncontrolled cell division due to mutations in genes that regulate the cell
cycle.
●​ Tumor – A mass of abnormally growing cells.
○​ Benign Tumor – Non-cancerous and does not spread.
○​ Malignant Tumor – Cancerous and can spread to other parts of the body
(metastasis).

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Reviewer: Cell Reproduction
I. Introduction to Cell Reproduction

●​ Cell reproduction is the process by which cells divide to form new cells.
●​ It is essential for growth, repair, and reproduction in organisms.
●​ Stop growing
●​ Two main types: Asexual reproduction (one parent, identical offspring) and Sexual
reproduction (two parents, genetically diverse offspring).
●​ Cells reproduce by dividing into two in the process called cell division.
○​ Each dividing cell is called mother cell or parent cell, its descendants are called
daughter cells.
○​ The parent cell passes its DNA to its daughter cells, ensuring they inherit genetic
instructions. These daughter cells can later divide, becoming new parent cells,
continuing the cycle of genetic transmission.
○​ As a cell prepares to divide, the DNA inside the nucleus becomes organized
chromosomes.

II. Diploid and Haploid Cells

●​ Diploid cells have 2 sets of chromosomes (46 total in humans).

●​ Haploid cells only have 1 set of chromosomes (23 total in humans).
○​ Only sperm and egg cells are haploid.

From Haploid to Diploid

●​ All living things reproduce to continue their species.

●​ In multicellular organisms, sex cells (gametes) undergo meiosis to maintain
chromosome number.
●​ Meiosis occurs in the sperm and egg cells of animals and in the anther and ovary of
plants.
●​ Daughter cells from meiosis have half the chromosome number of the parent cell.
●​ Humans have 23 chromosomes in gametes (haploid, n), ensuring that when
fertilization occurs, the full chromosome set is restored.
●​ During fertilization, the haploid sperm unites with the haploid egg, forming a diploid
(2n) zygote with 46 chromosomes.

Chromosomes and Sex Determination

●​ All body cells, except sperm and egg cells, have a full set of 46 chromosomes (diploid,
2n).
●​ The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are autosomes, while the 23rd pair are sex
chromosomes.
●​ Sex chromosomes determine biological sex:

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 ○​ Eggs always carry an X chromosome.
○​ Sperm can carry either X or Y.
○​ If an X-bearing sperm fertilizes an egg, the offspring is female (XX).
○​ If a Y-bearing sperm fertilizes an egg, the offspring is male (XY).

III. Cellular Division

●​ Also called cellular reproduction.

●​ Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission.
●​ Eukaryotic cells divide through mitosis or meiosis.

Cellular Division in Prokaryotes

●​ Binary fission: A single prokaryotic cell splits into two identical offspring.

Cellular Division in Eukaryotes

●​ Mitosis: Produces genetically identical daughter cells.

●​ Meiosis: Occurs in the formation of gametes (haploid reproductive cells).

IV. Cell Cycle

●​ A repeating set of events in a cell's life.

●​ Division is one phase of the cycle.
●​ The period between divisions is called interphase.
●​ Main Phases:
○​ Interphase or “resting phase” (cell growth and preparation for division)
■​ G1 phase – Cell grows and carries out normal functions.
■​ S phase – DNA replication occurs.
■​ G2 phase – Cell prepares for mitosis.
○​ M phase (Mitosis or Meiosis) – Cell division occurs.
○​ Cytokinesis – Division of cytoplasm to form two daughter cells.

V. Interphase

●​ Also called resting phase.

●​ Non-dividing stage but metabolically active
●​ Essential for cell growth
●​ Takes up 90% of the cell cycle.

Vocabulary
●​ Inter - between, middle, in the midst
●​ Pro - before, front, earlier
●​ Meta - occurring after, later

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 ●​ Ana - in the act of process, in, on
●​ Telo - end

Stages of Interphase:

1.​ Gap 1 (G₁) Phase:​

○​ Cell grows
○​ Organelles duplicate
○​ Proteins synthesize
2.​ Synthesis (S) Phase:​

○​ DNA and chromosomes replicate

○​ Sister chromatids form
3.​ Gap 2 (G₂) Phase:​

○​ Proteins synthesize
○​ Cell increases in size
○​ Prepares for division
4.​ Gap 0 (G₀) Phase:​

○​ Some cells enter a resting/quiescent stage

○​ Cells function but stop reproducing

VI. Cell Divison

Phases of Cell Division:

●​ Two alternating phases:

1.​ Interphase (18 hours)
2.​ Cell Division (2 hours)
●​ After interphase, the cell is ready to divide​

●​ Two main parts are involved:​

1.​ Nucleus (nuclear division = karyokinesis)

2.​ Cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
●​ Karyokinesis (Nuclear Division)​

1.​ Two types:

1.​ Mitosis – For growth and repair
2.​ Meiosis – For sexual reproduction
●​ Stages of Karyokinesis (Mitosis & Meiosis)​

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 1.​ Prophase – Chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form
2.​ Metaphase – Chromosomes align at the cell's center
3.​ Anaphase – Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite sides
4.​ Telophase – Two new nuclei form, preparing for cell division completion

VII. Cell Divison: Mitosis

Mitosis

●​ Definition: A process where a eukaryotic cell divides its chromosomes into two
identical sets in two daughter cells.​

Stages of Mitosis

Prophase (~15 mins)

●​ Chromosomes condense and become visible.

●​ Sister chromatids attach at the centromere.
●​ Spindle fibers begin forming from centrosomes.

Metaphase (~20 mins)

●​ Chromosomes align at the middle of the cell.

●​ Spindle fibers attach to centromeres and prepare to separate chromatids.

Anaphase (~3 mins)

●​ Centromeres split, and sister chromatids separate.

●​ Chromatids are pulled to opposite poles.
●​ Cleavage furrow starts to form.

Telophase (~10 mins)

●​ New nuclear membranes form.

●​ Spindle fibers disappear, and chromosomes become thinner.
●​ Cytoplasm begins to divide, forming two diploid daughter cells.

Cytokinesis

●​ Cytoplasm and organelles divide.

●​ Starts in anaphase and completes in telophase.
●​ Results in two identical daughter cells.

VIII. Cell Divison: Meiosis

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 ●​ Meiosis and mitosis are both types of cell division.
●​ Both go through the interphase stages (G₁, S phase, G₂).
●​ Purpose Differences:
○​ Mitosis – For growth and repair.
○​ Meiosis – For the production of gametes (sex cells: sperm & egg).
●​ Meiosis Process:
○​ Reduces chromosome number from diploid (2n) to haploid (n).
○​ Occurs only in gonads (testes or ovaries).
○​ Two cell divisions:
■​ Meiosis I – Homologous chromosomes separate.
■​ Meiosis II – Sister chromatids separate.
●​ Gamete Production:
○​ Spermatogenesis – Sperm cell production (males).
○​ Oogenesis – Egg cell production (females).

VIV. Stages of Meiosis I

Prophase I

●​ Longest and most complex phase (90%).

●​ Chromosomes condense.
●​ Synapsis: Homologous chromosomes pair up to form a tetrad (two chromosomes, four
chromatids).
●​ Homologous chromosomes (maternal & paternal) have similar shape, size, and genes
for the same traits.
●​ Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes (22 autosomes, 1 sex
chromosome pair).
●​ Crossing over occurs at chiasmata, increasing genetic variation.

Metaphase I

●​ Shortest phase.
●​ Tetrads align on the metaphase plate.
●​ Independent assortment: Random orientation of homologous pairs leads to variation.

Anaphase I

●​ Homologous chromosomes separate and move toward opposite poles.

●​ Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres.

Telophase I

●​ Each pole has a haploid set of chromosomes.

●​ Cytokinesis occurs, forming two haploid daughter cells.

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VV. Stages of Meiosis II

Prophase II

●​ Spindle apparatus forms.

●​ Chromosomes condense.

Metaphase II

●​ Haploid number of chromosomes align at the equator.

Anaphase II

●​ Sister chromatids are pulled apart at the centromere.

●​ Chromatids move toward opposite poles.

Telophase II

●​ Chromosomes reach the poles.

●​ Nuclear membrane and nuclei reform.

Cytokinesis (Not part of interphase)

●​ Results in four haploid cells, each with n chromosomes.

VVI. Importance of Meiosis

Role in Sexual Reproduction

●​ Produces haploid sex cells.

●​ Ensures the correct diploid number of chromosomes in offspring.
●​ Leads to genetic variation.

Maintaining Diploid Cells

●​ Creates haploid sex cells, which combine to form a diploid zygote during fertilization.
●​ The zygote undergoes mitosis, developing into a diploid organism.

Creating Haploid Cells

●​ Meiosis produces haploid sex cells, essential for genetic diversity.

●​ Chromosome alignment during Metaphase I leads to different chromosome
combinations in sex cells.

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VVII. Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

●​ Mitosis ensures growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.

●​ Meiosis maintains chromosome number and increases genetic diversity.

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