Chapter_08.
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Glossary
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The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance
Introduction
Cancer cells
mutated body cells
lost ability to control division
causes disease
Cancer therapy
disrupts one or more steps of cell division
Cell division in healthy bodies
allows growth
replaces damaged cells
In sexually reproducing organisms, eggs and sperm
Mitosis 細胞分裂 (有絲分裂)
Meiosis (減數分裂)
Main Ideas of Chpt 8
Cell division and reproduction
The eukaryotic cell and cycle and mitosis
meiosis and crossing over
alterations of chromosome number and structure
Cell Division and Reproduction
Cell division has many important roles in living organisms
Cell division
reproduction at the cellular level
requires duplication of chromosomes
sorts chromosomes ----> pair of daughter cells
cells' uses of cell division
reproduction of single-celled organisms
growth of multicellular organisms
repair & replacement of cells
production of sperm and eggs
two methods of reproduction
asexual reproduction
offspring are identical to original cell or organism
offspring inherits all genes from 1 parent
sexual reproduction
offspring are similar to parents
offspring inherits unique sets of genes from 2 parents
Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission (dividing in half)
chromosomes of prokaryotes
- 1 circular DNA molecule associated with proteins
- usually smaller than those of eukaryotes
Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis
Large, complex chromosomes duplicate during cell division
difference between Eukaryotic & Prokaryotic cells
Eukaryotic cells are more complex and larger
Eukaryotic cells have more genes
Eukaryotic cells store their genes on multiple chromosomes
Each eukaryotic species has a unique number of chromosomes
Eukaryotic chromosomes
composed of chromatin, which consists
1 long DNA molecule
proteins (help maintain chromosome structure & control activity)
chromatin during division
becomes highly compact
visible with microscope
Before cell division, chromosomes are duplicated, yielding
two copies of chromosomes: sister chromatids
joined together by a joint (narrowed waist): centromere
during cell division
- sister chromatids separate, become chromosomes
- then sorted into daughter cells
The cell cycle involves growth and division
The cell cycle:
from the times a cell is first formed from a parent cell
to its own division
2 stages of the cell cycle
interphase: duplication of cell contents
G1: growth- increase cytoplasm
S: duplication- duplication of chromosomes
G2: growth- prep for division
Mitotic phase: division
Mitosis: division of nucleus
cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm
Cell division is a sequence of dynamic changes
Stages of mitosis
prophase (前期)
prometaphase (前中期)
metaphase (中期)
anaphase (後期)
telophase (末期)
Cytokinesis (overlaps with telophase)
Mitotic spindles (有絲分裂 紡錘體)
- required to divide chromosomes
- made of microtubules
- produced by centrosomes中心體 (animal cells)
- organise microtubule arrangement
- contains a pair of centrioles中心粒
Interphase
cytoplasmic contents double
2 centrosomes form
chromosomes duplicate during S phase
nucleoli核仁 (where ribosomes are made), become visible
Prophase
microtubules begin to emerge from centrosomes, forming spindles
In nucleus
chromosomes coil
nucleoli disappears
Prometaphase
Some spindle microtubules reach chromosomes
attach to kinetochores on the centromeres
move chromosomes to centre of cell with protein "motors"
rest meet with microtubules from other pole to lengthen cell later
nuclear envelope disappears
Metaphase
Mitotic spindle is fully formed
chromosomes align at centre of cell
kinetochores of sister chromatids face opposite poles
Anaphase
sister chromatids separate at the centromere
daughter chromosomes move to opposite poles
moved along spindle microtubules with motor proteins
kinetochore microtubules shorten
nonkinetochore microtubules elongate cell
Telophase
cell continues to elongate
nuclear envelope forms around chromosomes ----> daughter nuclei
chromatin uncoils & nucleoli reappear
spindle disappears
Cytokinesis
cytoplasm divides into separate cells
cytokinesis occurs simultaneously with telophase
In animal cells
a cleavage furrow 分割溝 forms from a contracting ring of microfilaments interacting with
myosin
cleavage furrow deepens ----> separation into 2 cells
In plant cells
cell plate forms in middle from vesicles containing cell wall material
cell plate grows to reach edges, dividing into two cells
cells now have: plasma membrane & cell wall
Factors that affect cell division
cells in an organism divide at different rates
cell division is controlled by
presence of nutrients
growth factors (proteins that stimulate division)
density-dependent inhibition (crowded cells stop dividing)
anchorage dependence (cells need to contact a solid surface to divide)
Cell cycle control system: a cycling set of molecules that controls certain events in the cell cycle
Checkpoints in the cell cycle
can stop events
trigger events
3 major checkpoints
G1 checkpoint
if go-ahead signal: allows S phase to commence
if no go-ahead signal: causes cell to leave cycle, entering a G0 phase (nondividing)
G2 checkpoint
M checkpoint
Cancer growing out of control produce malignant tumours
Cancer cells
escape the cell cycle
divide excessively and invade other tissues of the body
A tumour (an abnormally growing mass of cells)
Benign tumours: remain at the original site
Malignant tumours: spread to other locations - metastasis
Naming of cancers: where they originate
Carcinomas: external or internal body coverings (skin)
Sarcomas: supportive and connective tissue
Leukemias, Lymphomas: white blood cells
Cancer treatments
localised tumours
surgically removed
radiation therapy
metastatic tumours
chemotherapy
Cancer treatment may vary depending on individual
Mortality rates from cancer can be affected by
age of diagnosis
race
others
Meiosis and Crossing Over
Chromosomes form homologous pairs
Somatic cells (體細胞) in humans have 46 chromosomes ----> 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
sex chromosomes X & Y differ in size and genetic composition
the rest (22 pairs) are autosomes (體染色體) have the same size and genetic composition
Homologous chromosomes are matching in
length
centromere position
gene locations
A locus (plural loci) is the position of a gene
Gametes have a single set of chromosomes
An organism's life cycle
from the adults of one generation
to adults of the next
Humans & many animals are diploid, meaning
body cells have 2 sets of chromosomes
1 set from each parent
Meiosis: process that converts diploid nuclei to haploid nuclei
Diploid cells: 2 sets of chromosomes
Haploid cells: 1 set of chromosomes
Meiosis occurs in the sex organs ----> producing gametes (配子): sperm & eggs
Fertilisation: union of sperm and egg
Zygotes
have a diploid chromosome number
one from each parent
Meiosis reduces chromosomes number from diploid ----> haploid
sexual life cycles involve an alteration between
diploid stage
haploid stage
producing haploid gametes prevents number of chromosomes from doubling every generation
Meiosis & Mitosis: both preceded by duplication of chromosomes
meiosis: 2 consecutive cell divisions
4 daughter cells with haploid set of chromosomes
mitosis: 1 cell division
Interphase
same as mitosis, chromosomes duplicate
Meiosis I
Prophase I: in nucleus
chromosomes coil ----> compact
each pair (with 4 chromatids): tetrad
non-sister chromatids exchange genetic material by crossing over
Metaphase I: tetrads align at cell equator
Anaphase I:
homologous pairs separate and move to opposite poles
sister chromatids remain attached
Telophase I:
after chromosomes reach the poles, cytokinesis occurs
Meiosis II (follows meiosis I without chromosome duplication)
Prophase II
spindle forms and moves chromosomes toward middle of cell
Metaphase II
chromosomes align at cell equator (like mitosis)
Anaphase II
sister chromatids separate
chromosomes move to opposite poles
Telophase II
after chromosomes reach poles, nuclear envelope forms
cytokinesis ----> 4 haploid cells
Compare and contrast between mitosis & meiosis
they both
begin with diploid parent cells
chromosomes duplicate during interphase
differences
mitosis produces 2 identical diploid somatic daughter cells
meiosis produces 4 unique haploid gametes
Independent orientation of chromosomes in meiosis and random fertilisation lead to differing
offspring
Genetic variation in gametes, reasons:
independent orientation at metaphase I
each pair of chromosomes independently aligns at cell equator
equal probability of maternal or paternal chromosomes facing a given pole
number of combinations of chromosomes is 2 to the Nth power (n=haploid number of
chromosomes)
random fertilisation
combination of each unique sperm and egg increases variability
Homologous chromosomes may carry different versions of genes
separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis can lead to genetic differences between
gametes
homologous chromosomes may have different versions of a gene at the same locus
1 is from maternal parent, 1 is from paternal parent
chromosomes move to opposite poles during anaphase I ---->
gametes will receive either maternal or paternal genes
Crossing over further increases genetic variability
Genetic recombination: production of new combinations of genes cuz of crossing over
crossing over: exchange of corresponding segments between separate non-sister chromatids on
homologous chromosomes
chromatids join at chiasma 染色體交叉 (plural, chiasmata) (site of attachment and crossing over)
genetic material is exchanged
Alterations of chromosome number and structure
Accidents during meiosis can change chromosome number
nondisjunction: failure of chromosomes or chromatids to separate normally, during
meiosis I: when both members of homologous pair go to one pole
meiosis II: when both sister chromatids go to one pole
Fertilisation of nondisjunction causes altered number of chromosomes in zygotes
Karyotype: a photographic inventory of an individual's chromosomes
Karyotype: an ordered display of magnified images of an individuals chromosomes in pairs
are producing from capturing dividing cells during metaphase of mitosis
allows observation of
homologous chromosome pairs
chromosome number
chromosome structure
An extra copy of chromosome 21 causes down syndrome
Trisomy 21
involves inheritance of 3 copies of chromosome 21
most common human chromosome abnormality (down syndrome)
Down syndrome characteristics
unique facial features
short stature
heart defects
increased risk of respiratory infections, leukemia, alzheimer's
development disabilities
probability increases with age of the mother
Abnormal numbers of sex chromosomes do not affect survival
sex chromosomes abnormalities affect genetic balance less, because of
- small size of Y chromosome
- X chromosome inactivation
New species can arise from errors in cell division
errors can create polyploid species (more than two chromosome sets)
formation of polyploid species
in many plant species
less frequent with animals
Alterations off chromosome structure can cause birth defects and cancer
chromosome breakage can lead to rearrangements ----> genetic disorders (in somatic cells, causes
cancer)
4 types of changes in chromosome structure
deletion: loss of chromosome segment
duplication: repeat of chromosome segment
inversion: reversal of chromosome segment
translocation: attachment of segment to a nonhomologous chromosome
severity: deletions, duplications > Inversions
many deletions cause serious physical or mental problems
translocations could be harmless
Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML)
one of the most common leukemias
affects give rise to leukocytes
caused by reciprocal translocation where small fragments of chromosome 22 & 9 swap places
