CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

For all higher organisms, life begins with a single cell called G2 checkpoint, Keeps the cell from entering mitosis if the
a zygote. cell doesn’t meet certain conditions like the proper replication
of all chromosomes.
Single-celled organisms usually reproduce by dividing in
half, termed “binary fission” M checkpoint. makes sure all the chromosomes are properly
aligned before the allowing the cell to divide.
Asexual reproduction. Type of reproduction that produces
clones or genetically identical individuals Cancer. Different diseases caused by uncontrolled cell
division; When cells having faulty DNA continue to grow
Sexual reproduction. Type of reproduction that requires the until it dominates the growth of normal cells in the area, a
fusion of gametes tumor, results
Gametes only have half the chromosomes as the parent but
they contain unique combinations of genes.
MITOSIS
The chromosomes of a eukaryotic cell are duplicated before
they condense and the cell divides. - Division of somatic cells
- the cell is divided into identical daughter cells,
Sister chromatids. joined copies of the original chromosome which are two new cells that are a complete copy of
held together by proteins. the parent cell
The two sister chromatids are attached by proteins to form a Chromatin. The genetic material in the nucleus that exists as
region called the centromere. long and thin structures when the cell is not dividing
Cell division. the basis of reproduction for every organism. Chromosomes. When the long strands of DNA are condensed
Cell cycle. An ordered sequence of events that run from the into coiled and thick structures
moment a cell is formed until it divides into two cells. When DNA is replicated in the S phase of interphase, the
Two main stages of cycle chromosomes are composed of two sister chromatids that
are bound to each other by cohesin proteins in a region called
• Interphase. a growing stage, where the cell doubles centromere.
everything in its cytoplasm and replicates DNA;
Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase.
o G1 phase or the “first gap” the phase in which the 5 Stages of mitosis
cell spends most of its life
o S phase (for “Synthesis” of DNA) where Prophase. is the initial phase of mitosis and it takes the
chromosomes are duplicated and DNA is copied. longest to complete.
o G2 phase or the “second gap” where the cell
- chromatin condenses into chromosomes
completes preparation for cell division; e growth
- the nuclear envelope breaks down.
period in which many organelles are reproduced and
- In animal cells, the centrioles start to separate and
manufactured.
move to opposite poles of the cell
o G0 phase. the resting phase, in which the cell has left
the cycle and has stopped dividing Prometaphase. the rest of the nuclear envelope disappears
o Some cells may remain in G0 for long periods of
time, even indefinitely, like neurons. - the spindle fibers continue to develop as more
• Mitotic phase. cell division stage; period during microtubules assemble and stretch.
which a cell undergoes physical division - Each sister chromatid attaches to the spindle fibers
o Karyokinesis or mitosis. the nucleus and its contents at the centromere via a protein complex called the
(emphasis on the duplicated chromosomes) divide kinetochore.
and are distributed into the nuclei of the two
Metaphase. all the chromosomes are aligned in a plane called
daughter cells.
the metaphase plate or equatorial plane
o Cytokinesis. begins prior to the end of mitosis,
causes the cell’s cytoplasm to divide into two. Anaphase. sister chromatids are separated at the centromere.

- each chromatid is pulled rapidly toward the pole of

the cell
Mitosis is unique to eukaryotes
- at the end of anaphase, each pole of the cell has a
G1 checkpoint. Found just before the cell enters the S phase, complete set of chromosomes
determines whether the cell should divide or not.
Telophase. chromosomes begin to decondense
S checkpoint. Ensures the DNA has been replicated properly.
- mitotic spindles break down into monomers which
will be used to put together the components of the
cytoskeleton for each daughter cell
 - nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes - These daughter cells proceed to meiosis II without
interphase.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis II. second round of meiotic division, following
- produces sex cells (gamete) that contain half of the meiosis I but without the DNA replicating again
chromosome number which also means, the cells
possess half of the full set of chromosomes - The process in a way occurs similarly to mitosis.
- Result in four haploid cells
- A human cell prior to meiosis has 46 chromosomes,
22 pairs of homologous autosomes (chromosomes
that are not sex chromosomes) and 1 pair of sex
chromosomes.

Meiosis I. Reduction division; happening just after DNA

replicates during interphase

- reduces the number of chromosome set from two to

one
- Genetic information is also mixed to create unique
recombinant chromosomes.

Gametogenesis. the process in which the cells develop and

mature into gametes capable of fertilization.
Prophase I. The nuclear envelope breaks down and
chromosomes condense; the centrioles begin moving to - Spermatogenesis. Process of producing sperm cells
opposite poles of the cell and spindle begins to form. - Oogenesis. Process of producing a mature egg;
results to only a single egg
- Homologous chromosomes pair up (the process is
called synapsis) which results to a tetrad
- These homologous chromosomes then recombine
Aneuploidy. Daughter cells with too many or too few
(exchange genetic material) in a process called
chromosomes caused by mistakes in mitosis
crossing-over at sites called chiasmata (singular
chiasma). - Monosomy. loss of one chromosome
- Chiasmata is the point of contact between two non- - Trisomy. gain of an extraneous chromosome
sister chromatids belonging to homologous
chromosomes during crossing over. Down syndrome. Most common trisomy among viable
- The recombinant sister chromatids possess a births is that of chromosome 21
combination of maternal and paternal genes that did
Older women are more likely to be pregnant with a fetus
not exist before the cross-over.
having trisomy 21
Metaphase I. Paired homologous chromosomes are attached
to the spindle fibers and line up along the equator of the cell.
Nondisjunction. the failure of homologous chromosomes or
Anaphase I. Spindle fibers shorten and the chromosomes of
sister chromatids to separate during meiosis
each homologous pair begin separating from each other.
Individuals with three X chromosomes (a.k.a. triplo-X)
- One of the homologous chromosomes move toward
appear female but experience delays in developed and
one pole of the cell, while the other moves to the
reduced fertility.
opposite pole.
Klinefelter syndrome. Individuals that have XXY
Telophase I and Cytokinesis. Spindle fibers break down and
chromosome are male individuals with small testes, enlarged
new nuclear membranes form.
breasts, and reduced body hair.
- Cytoplasmic division happens next and it results to
Turner syndrome. Individuals that have only a single sex
two haploid daughter cells with random assortment
chromosome, that is they have X0 is a female individual with
of chromosomes, with one from each homologous
short stature, has heart and hearing impairments, and is
pair.
sterile.