CHAPTER FOUR

HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS

 Thermodynamics is a science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy.
 Thermodynamics is the study of energy conversion between heat and other forms of energy.
 Thermodynamics describes phenomena on large scale through measurement of macroscopic
variables such as volume, pressure and temperature.

4.1. The concept of Temperature and the Zeroth law of Thermodynamics

Heat:- The flow of energy from one object to another because of temperature difference
Temperature:- The measure of average random kinetic energy of particles in a body.
Thermal equilibrium:- The condition in which two bodies are at the same temperature and there is no
transfer of energy between them.
Zeros Law of thermodynamics:- Two bodies that are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third body
must be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Zeros law is used to calibrate thermometer

Temperature Scales
 Thermometers measure temperature according to well-defined scales of measurement.
 The three most common temperature scales are Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin.
 Temperature scales are created by identifying two reproducible temperatures; the freezing and
boiling temperatures of water at standard atmospheric pressure are commonly used.
 On the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water is 0 and the boiling point is 100 . The unit
of temperature on this scale is the degree Celsius (0C).
 The Fahrenheit scale has the freezing point of water at 32 and the boiling point at 212 . Its
unit is the degree Fahrenheit (0F).
4.2. Thermal Expansion
Linear Thermal Expansion
The increase in length ∆L of a solid is proportional to its initial length L and the change in its
temperature ∆T.The proportionality constant is called the coefficient of linear expansion, α.
∆L = αL ∆T
⟹ L = L (1 + α∆T)
A bimetallic strip consists of two metals of different coefficients of thermal expansion, A and B in the
figure. It will bend when heated or cooled.

The curvature of a bimetallic strip depends on temperature. (a) The strip is straight at the starting
temperature, where its two components have the same length. (b) At a higher temperature, this strip bends
to the right, because the metal on the left has expanded more than the metal on the right. At a lower
temperature, the strip would bend to the left.

Areal Expansion
The change in area ∆A of a solid is proportional to its initial area A and the change in its
temperature ∆T. That is,
∆A = βL ∆T
⟹ A = A (1 + β∆T)
where β = 2α is the coefficient of areal expansion.
Volume Expansion
The change in volume ∆V of a solid is proportional to its initial volume V and the change in its
temperature ∆T. That is,
∆V = γV ∆T
⟹ A = V (1 + γ∆T)
Where γ = 3α is the coefficient of volume expansion
Exercises
1. A Brass strip is 3cm long at 0ºC. How long will it be at 100ºC if the coefficient of linear expansion
for Brass is 1.8 x 10-5/ºC?
2. A rod of metal is measured at 285K and is 3.521m long. At 373K the rod is 3.523m long. Determine
the value of the coefficient of linear expansion for the metal.
3. A silver plate has an area of 800 at 150C. Determine the increase in the area of the plate when
the temperature is raised to 1000C. Assume the coefficient of linear expansion of silver to be 19 ×
10
4. At 283K a thermometer contains 440 of alchohol. Determine the temperature at which the
volume is 480 assuming that the coefficient of cubic expansion of the alchhohol is 12 ×
10
5. A zink sphere has a radius of 30mm at a temperature of 200C. If the temperature of the sphere is
raised to 4200C, determine the increase in (a) the radius (b) the surface area(c) the volume of the
sphere. Assume the coefficient of linear expansion of for zinc to be 31 × 10
6. A block of cast iron has dimensions of 50mm by 30mm by 10mm at 150C. Determine the increase in
volume when the temperature of the block is raised to 750C. Assume the coefficient of linear
expansion of for cast iron to be 11 × 10

4.3.The Concept of Heat, Work and Internal Energy

 Heat, symbol Q and unit Joule (J), is the spontaneous flow of energy into or out of a
system caused by a difference in temperature between the system and its surroundings, or
between two objects whose temperatures are different.
 Work, symbol W and unit Joule (J), is a non-spontaneous energy transfer into or out of a system
due to force acting through a displacement.
 Heat and work are two possible ways of transferring energy from one system to another.
 Heat transfer obeys the law of conservation of energy (if no heat is lost to the surroundings)
=
 Internal Energy, symbol U, is defined as the energy associated with the random,
disordered motion of the microscopic components-atoms and molecules.
 Internal energy includes kinetic energy of translation, rotation, and vibration of molecules,
potential energy within molecules, and potential energy between molecules.

4.4. Specific Heat and Latent Heat

Heat flowing into or out of a body (or system) changes the temperature of the body (or system) except
during phase changes where temperature remains constant.
The heat capacity (C) of a substance is defined as the amount of heat energy needed to raise the
temperature of that substance by 1°C or (1K). If heat Q produces a change ∆T in the temperature of a
substance, then
Q = C∆T
The specific heat capacity (c) of a substance is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1kg of that substance by 1°C or (1K).It is the heat capacity per unit mass. Thus, if energy
Q transferred by heat to mass m of a substance changes the temperature of the sample by ∆T, then the
specific heat of the substance is c= = ∆
Rearranging the equation gives
Q = mc∆T
Latent Heats
Latent heat the amount of heat energy released or absorbed by a substance during a phase change that
occurs at a constant temperature
Based on the type of phase change latent heat can be:
Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf): is the heat absorbed or released when matter melts, changing phase from
solid to liquid form at constant temperature.
Latent Heat of Vaporization (Lv): is the heat absorbed or released when matter vaporizes,
changing phase from liquid to gas at constant temperature.

Exercises
1) How much heat energy is required to change a 40g ice cube from a solid at -100C to steam at 1100C?
2) If 90g of molten lead at 327.30C is poured into a 300g casting form made of iron and initially at
20.00C, what is the final temperature of the system? Assume no energy is lost to the environment.
3) A liquid of unknown specific heat at a temperature of 200C was mixed with water at 800C in a well-
insulated container. The final temperature was measured to be 500C, and the combined mass of the
two liquids was measured to be 240g. In a second experiment with both liquids at the same
initial temperatures, 20g less of the liquid of unknown specific heat was poured into the same amount
of water as before. This time the equilibrium temperature was found to be 520C. Determine the
specific heat of the liquid. The specific heat of water is 4187J/Kg0C or 1kcal/kg0C.
4) The temperature of a silver bar rises by 100C when it absorbs 1.23kJ of energy by heat. The mass of
the bar is 525g. Determine the specific heat of silver.
5) Calculate the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of ice from −100C to 1100C.
6) If 20g steam initially at 1000C is added to 60g of ice initially at 00C, then find the final equilibrium
temperature of the mixture.
7) The temperature of a silver bar rises by 10.0°C when it absorbs1.23kJ of energy by heat. The mass of
the bar is 525g. Determine the specific heat of silver.
8) A 50.0g sample of copper is at 25.00C. If 1200J of energy is added to it by heat, what is the final
temperature of the copper?

4.5. Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Heat may be transferred from one place to another in three ways:
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
 direct burning
Conduction
- Conduction occurs when heat energy travels through a body, passing from particle to particle as
they vibrate against each other.
- A good conductor must have particles which are close enough together to collide with
sufficient force for energy to be transferred.
- Metals are all good conductors of heat
- All liquids (except mercury) and gases are very poor conductors of heat.
 Convection
- Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of the heated particles themselves.
- Convection can only take place in liquids and gases because in solids the particles are not able to
move from their fixed positions.
- When a liquid or gas is heated, it expands and becomes less dense. The lighter liquid or gas rises
allowing a flow of cooler material to take its place.
- A vacuum is an extremely poor conductor of heat.
Radiation
- Radiation is the way we receive heat energy from the sun.
- It does not require a medium for its transmission (i.e. it can travel through empty space) and is in the
form of electromagnetic energy waves which travel in the same way as light or radio waves.
- When these energy waves fall on a body, the energy may be absorbed, transmitted and reflected
- When radiant energy is absorbed the body will rise in temperature.
- Black and dull surfaces absorb (and radiate) heat much more efficiently than white shiny
surface
Direct Burning
- By direct burning, the heat of a fire will transfer across any area where there is a line of fuel
for the fire to follow.
- Fire spreading along a piece of wood and setting fire to other pieces of wood in contact with it.

4.6. The First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of a system is equal to the sum
of the heat flow into the system and the work done on the system.”
In equation form the first law can be written as
∆ = +∆
The First Law for different thermodynamic systems:
Isolated system-is a system which does not exchange heat with its surrounding and no work is done on
the external environment. In this case Q=0 and W=0, so from the first law we conclude
∆ =0 =
The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.

Cyclic Process
Since the system returns to its initial state, the change in internal energy in one complete cycle is
zero
Isobaric Process:- A process for which the pressure of the gas remains constant
For isobaric process
∆W = F∆x
but F = PA
⇒ ∆W = PA∆x = P∆V where ∆V = A∆x
Then 1st Law of thermodynamics becomes
∆U = ∆Q + P∆V (for work done on the system)
If the gas expands work is done by the system
⇒ ∆U = ∆Q − P∆V
Isochoric process: A process in which the volume of the system remains constant.
i.e for isochoric process ∆V = 0 ⇒ ∆W = P∆V = 0
 1st Law of thermodynamics becomes ∆U = ∆Q
 All the heat entering the system goes into increasing the internal energy.
Adiabatic process:- A process in which there is no transfer of heat in and out of the system
i. e ∆Q = 0
 The first law for an adiabatic process takes the form
⇒ ∆U = W
Isothermal process:- A process that occurs at constant temperature
i. e ∆U = 0
st
 1 Law of thermodynamics becomes
∆Q + P∆V = 0 ⇒ ∆Q = −P∆V
Exercises
1) 5000J of heat are added to two moles of an ideal monatomic gas, initially at a temperature of 500K,
while the gas performs 7500J of work. What is the final temperature of the gas?
2) 2000J of heat leaves the system and 2500J of work is done on the system. What is the change in
internal energy of the system?
3) A 1.0mol sample of an ideal gas is kept at 0.0°C during an expansion from 3.0L to 10.0L.
a) How much work is done on the gas during the expansion?
b) How much energy transfer by heat occurs with the surroundings in this process?
4) A system absorbs 35J of heat and in the process it does 11J of work. (a) If the initial internal energy is
205J what is the final internal energy? (b)The system follows a different thermodynamic path to the
same final state and does 15J of work, what is the heat transferred?
5) A gas is compressed at a constant pressure of 0.800atm from 9.00L to 2.00L. In the process, 400J of
energy leaves the gas by heat. (a) What is the work done on the gas? (b) What is the change in its
internal energy?
6) A gas is confined to a vertical cylinder by a piston of mass 2kg and radius 1cm. When 5J of heat are
added, the piston rises by 2.4cm. Find: (a) the work done by the gas; (b) the change in its internal
energy. Atmospheric pressure is 105Pa.
7) A thermodynamic system undergoes a process in which its internal energy decreases by 500J. At the
same time, 220J of work is done on the system. Find the energy transferred to or from it by heat.