THERMAL EXPANSION OF

SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

• Thermal expansion is a phenomenon where the
volume of a substance increases with increase
in temperature.
Suppose an object has an initial length Lo along a
direction at temperature To. The length increases to L as
the temperature increase to T
Thus, for small changes in temperature
𝐿 − 𝐿𝑜 ∝ 𝐿𝑜 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝐿 − 𝐿𝑜 = 𝛼𝐿𝑜 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 )
Where 𝛼 is the constant of the proportionality called the
coefficient of linear expansion for a given material and
has units of ˚C-1
∆𝐿 ∝ 𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇
∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇
The coefficient of linear expansion varies from
one material to another.
 Change in area of an object
Because the linear dimensions of an object
change with temperature, it follows that surface
area and volume also change with temperature.
Consider a square having an initial length Lo on
a side and therefore an initial area Ao = (L0)2.
As the temperature increases the length of each
side increases to
 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 + 𝛼𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇
The change in area can be calculated by squaring
both side of the equation
𝐿2 = 𝐿𝑜 + 𝛼𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇 2
2 2 2
𝐿 + 2𝛼𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇 + 𝛼 𝐿𝑜 (∆𝑇)2
2

Because α∆T is so small, the 𝛼 2 (∆𝑇)2 will be

much smaller.
Therefore, 𝛼 2 (∆𝑇)2 is negligible and the
expression can be reduced to
2 2 2
𝐴 = 𝐿 = 𝐿𝑜 + 2𝛼𝐿𝑜 ∆𝑇
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑜 + 2𝛼𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇
𝐴 − 𝐴𝑜 = 2𝛼𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇
∆𝐴 = 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑜 = 2𝛼𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇
𝐴 − 𝐴𝑜 = β𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇
Where β = 2α it is called the coefficient of area
expansion.
 Change in volume of an object
By a similar procedure we can show that the
increase in volume of an object with increase in
temperature is given by;
∆𝑉 = 𝛾𝑉𝑜 ∆𝑇
Where γ is the coefficient of volume expansion
and is equal to 3α
 Applications
1. Thermal expansion affects the choice of
glassware used in kitchens and laboratories. If
hot liquid is poured into a cold container made
of ordinary glass, the container may break due to
thermal stress.
2. Pyrex glass has a coefficient of linear expansion
of about ⅓ that of ordinary glass, so that thermal
stress are smaller.
3. Kitchen measuring cups and laboratory beakers
are often made of Pyrex so that they can be used
with hot liquids.
 Questions
If you quickly plunge a room-temperature
mercury thermometer into very hot water, the
mercury level will
(a) Go up briefly before reaching a final reading
(b)Go down briefly before reaching a final
reading
(c) Not change
 Question
Two spheres are made of the same ketal and
have the same radius, but one is hollow and the
other is solid. The spheres are take through the
same temperature. Which sphere expands more?
a) Solid sphere
b) Hollow sphere
c) The expand by the same amount,
d) Not enough information to say
 Question
A steel railroad track has a length of 30.0 m
when the temperature is 0˚C. What is its length
on a hot day when the temperature is 40 ˚C?
THERMAL ENERGY
 Heat and Internal Energy
Internal Energy U is the energy
associated with the microscopic
components of a system-atoms and
molecules. It includes kinetic and
potential energy associated with the
random translational, rotational, and
vibrational motion of the atoms or
molecules that make up the system as
well as intermolecular potential energy.
Heat is a mechanism by which energy
is transferred between a system and its
environment because of a temperature
difference between them.
• The general unit of heat is calorie and
the SI unit is given in Joule (J)
because it’s a measure of energy
transfer.

1 calorie = 4.186 J
 Example

 A student eats a dinner containing 2000 Calories

of energy. He wishes to do an equivalent amount
of work in the gymnasium by lifting a 50.0 kg
object. How many times must he raise the object
to expend this much energy? Assuming he raises
it a distance of 2.00 m each time.
 Solution
3
 The student desires to transfer 2.00 x 10 Calories
of energy from his body by doing work on the
object-Earth system. Because 1 Calorie = 1.00 x
3 6
10 cal, the total work required is 2.00 x 10 cal.
Therefore, the total work is calculated thus

6 6
W = (2.00 x 10 cal)(4.186J/cal) = 8.37 x 10 J

 The work done in lifting an object of mass m, a

distance h, is equal to mgh, and the work done in
lifting it n times is nmgh.
 We equate this to the total work required:
W = nmgh
Then, n will be, n = W/mgh

6 2
n = 8.37 x 10 J/(50.0kg)(9.80 m/s )(2.00 m)
= 8.54 x 103 times
 If the student is in good shape and lifts the
weight once every 5s, it will take him about
12hrs to perform this feat. Clearly, it is easier
to lose weight by dieting than by lifting
weight.
 SPECIFIC HEAT

If Q is the amount of energy supply to a

substance of mass m to increase its temperature
from Ti to Tf, it implies that
𝑄 ∝ 𝑚∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝑐𝑚∆𝑇
Where c is the constant of the proportionality
known as the specific heat capacity. It varies
from one material to another.
The heat capacity c of a particular
sample of a substance is defined as the
amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of that sample by 1ºC.
𝑄
𝑐=
𝑚∆𝑇
 HEAT CAPACITY
The heat capacity C of a particular sample of a
substance is defined as the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of that sample by
1°C.
𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑇
Where C= 𝑚𝑐
 HEAT GAINED OR LOST
The heat gained or lost by a body (whose
phase does not change) as it undergoes a
temperature change ∆T, is given by ∆𝑄 =
𝑚𝑐∆𝑇

The principle of conservation of energy by

an isolated system requires that the net
result of all energy transfers is zero.
 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 = −𝑄ℎ𝑜𝑡
Qcold is positive because energy is
flowing into cooler objects, and
Qhot is negative because energy is
leaving the hot object.
 Question

(a) How much heat is required

to raise the temperature of 250
ml of water from 20 ⁰C to 35
⁰C? (b) How much heat is lost
by the water as it cools back
down to 20 ⁰C
 Solution

(a)
∆𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
= 0.250 × 4186 × 15 = 15,698𝐽
(b)
∆𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
= 0.250 × 4186 × (−15)
= −15,698𝐽
LATENT HEAT AND PHASE CHANGE

A substance usually undergoes a change in

temperature when energy is transferred between
the substance and its environment. But when a
substance change from one form to another,
commonly referred to as a phase change.

The phase change can be from solid to liquid

(melting) or liquid to gas (boiling).
The energy Q needed to change the phase of a
given substance is
𝑄 = ±𝑚𝐿
Where L, is called the latent heat of the
substance, depends on the nature of the [phase
change as well as the substance.

The unit of latent heat is the J/kg

 The Heat of Fusion (Lf)
The latent heat of fusion (Lf) of a crystalline
solid is the quantity of heat required to melt a
unit mass of the solid at constant temperature. It
is also equal to the quantity of heat given off by a
unit mass of the molten solid as it crystallizes at
this temperature.

The heat of fusion of water at 0 ⁰C is about 335

kJ/kg or 80 cal/g.
 The Heat of Vaporization (Lv)
Latent heat of vaporization (Lv) of a liquid is the
quantity of heat required to vaporize a unit mass
of the liquid at constant temperature. For water
at 100 ⁰C Lv is about 2.26 MJ/kg.
 L is the latent heat of the substance,
 It depends on the nature of the phase
change, and
 It depends on the substance
(make/properties of the substance)
 The Heat of Sublimation
The heat of sublimation of a solid substance is
the quantity of heat required to convert a unit
mass of the substance from the solid to the
gaseous state at constant temperature.

Examples
(i) a dry ice and frozen meat change from solid
to liquid.
(ii) Perfume (drum) changes from solid to liquid.
 Question
Liquid helium has a very low boiling point, 4.2 k
as well as a low latent heat of vaporization, 2.09
x 104 J/kg. If energy is transferred to a container
of liquid helium at the boiling point from an
immersed electric heater at a rate of 10.0 W, how
long does it take to boil away 2.0 kg of the
liquid?
 Solution
To find the energy needed to vaporize 2.0 kg
of liquid helium,
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿𝑣 = 2.0 × 2.09 × 104 = 4.18 × 104 𝐽

To find the time it takes to boil away

𝑄 𝑚𝐿𝑣
∆𝑡 = =
𝑃 𝑃
4.18 × 104
= = 4.18 × 103 = 69.7 𝑚𝑖𝑛
10.0
 Heat Transfer
• Heat energy may be transferred from
one point to another by conduction,
convection and radiation.
 Conduction
• The energy transfer process that is
mostly clearly associated with a
temperature difference is called
thermal conduction or simply
conduction.
• If one end of a metal rod is placed in a
flame heat will be transferred from the
end that is heated to the other end by
process known as conduction.
• The molecules at the hot end will be
vibrating and thereby collide with the
neighboring molecules and as a result
heat will be transferred to the
neighboring molecules and the rate of
their vibration increases as the
temperature of the hot end increases.
• Hence, thermal motion (energy) is
passed along from one molecules to the
next, while each individual molecule
remains at its original position.ng
thermal energy

• Metals are good conductor of

electricity and also good conductor of
heat. The free electrons in metal
provide an effective mechanism for
carry thermal energy form the hotter
to the cooler portions of the metal.
• Conduction of heat can take place in a
body only when different parts of the
body are at different temperatures,
and the direction of heat flow is always
from points of higher to points of lower
temperature.
• A metal rod at 20 ⁰C feels cooler than a
piece of wood at the same temperature
because heat can flow more easily from
hand into the metal.
 Simple calculation
• Consider a rod of material of cross-
section area A and its length L. Let one
end be heated to temperature T2 and
other end at lower temperature T1
• When a quantity of heat dQ is
transferred through the rod in a time
dt, the rate of heat flow is dQ/dt.
• This rate is called heat current and
denoted by H
• Experiment shows that the rate of flow
of heat per unit time (H) through the
rod in the steady state is proportional
to the area A, also, proportional to the
difference in temperature (T2 – T1), and
inversely proportional to the length L.
 A(T 2  T 1)
H
L

kA(T 2  T 1)
H .......... .......... ....(1)
L
• Where k is the constant of the
proportionality and it depends on the
material of the rod. The k is called
thermal conductivity.
• The quantity of (T2 – T1)/L is called the
temperature difference per unit length
is called the temperature gradient.
Material with large k are good
conductor of heat while materials with
small k are poor conductor or insulator.
• The thermal conductivity of “dead” (non
moving) air is very small. A wool
sweater keeps you warm because it
traps air between the fibers.
 Convection
• The process of transferring of heat from
one place to another by the actual motion
of the material is known as convection.

• Example the hot-air furnace, the hot

water heating system and the flow of
blood in the body.
• If the fluid is forced to move by a blower
or pump, the process is known as forced
convection.
• Forced convection is the most important
mechanism for heat transfer within the
human body with the hear serves as the
pump and the blood as the circulating
fluid.
• If the fluid flow due to differences in
density the process is know as natural
or free convection.
 The heat current due to convection is
directly:
proportional to the surface area
(radiator).
Approximately proportional to the T 4 of
5

the temperature difference between the

surface and the main body of fluid.
 Radiation
• Radiation is the mode of transfer of
heat energy through vacuum as well as
through air. It is also referees to the
continual emission of energy from the
surface of all bodies and is in the form
of electromagnetic waves. These waves
travels with the velocity of light.
• Heat current due to radiation is directly
proportional to the area and it also
depends on the nature of the surface
and its temperature.
• Everybody, even at ordinary
temperature, emits energy in the form
of electromagnetic radiation.
• In Physics, a black body is an idealized
object that absorbs all electromagnetic
radiation that falls on it. A black body
emits a temperature dependent of
spectrum of light.
• This thermal radiation from a black
body is termed black-body radiation.
• Hence, a good absorber of radiation is
also a good emitter of radiation.
• The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that
the total energy radiated per second by
unit area of a surface is proportional to
the absolute temperature of the
surface raised to the fourth power.
• As in all matter, the human body
radiates some of a person's energy away
as infrared light.
 Stefan’s Law
• All abject radiate energy continuously in
form of electromagnetic waves due to
thermal vibrations of the molecules.
• The rate at which an object radiates
energy is proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature.
This is known as Stefan’s Law and it is
expressed in equation form as
• The heat current (H ) in radiation is given
by this equation

H  AT 4

H  AT 4
• Where T temperature in Kelvin
• ε is the emissivity and the value can vary
between zero and unity, depending on the
properties of the surface of the object
• σ is Stefan-Boltsmann constant
-8 -2
= 5.67 x 10 Wm
• If the temperatures of the object and
its surrounding are different, there
must be a net flow of radiant energy.

• If an object is at a temperature To and

its surroundings are at a temperature
Ts, the net rate of energy loss or gain
per unit time is given by
• The net power radiated is the
difference between the power emitted
and the power absorbed:
• Applying the Stefan–Boltzmann law,

Pnet  A(T  T )
S
4
o
4
• Note that the temperature used in
calculating radiated power are the
absolute temperature in Kelvin
 Question
• What is the rate of radiation energy
loss of a person with surface area 1.8
m2 and skin temperature of 32 ⁰C
situate in an enclosure with wall
temperature 20 ⁰C.
• Take the emissivity of human skin to be
1.0 and σ = 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2k-4
 Solution

Q
 A [TS  To ]
4 4

t
8
 1.8 1 5.67 10  [(308)  (293) ]
4 4

 1.3 10 W
2
 Questions 1
• A student is try to decide what to wear.
The surrounding (bedroom) are at 20°C.
If the skin temperature of the
unclothed student is 35°C, what is the
net energy loss from his body in 10 min
by radiation? Assuming that the
emissivity of skin is 0.9 and the surface
2
are of the student is 1.5 m
 Question 2
• The Department of Physics of the
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife
organized and end of the year party and
a Styrofoam (cooler) box of total
2
surface are (including the lids) 0.80 m
and of wall thickness 2.0 cm was used to
keep the drinks cold. It was filled with
ice, water and bottles of maltina at 0°C.
If the temperature of the outside is
30°C what is the rate of heat flow in the
box?
 Question 3
• Find the rate of energy flow through a
cooper block of cross-sectional area 15
2
cm and length 8.0 cm when a
temperature difference of 30°C is
established across the block. Take the
thermal conductivity of copper to be
397 J/s.m.°C