HEAT

&
THERMODYNAMICS

NDA PHYSICS
WHAT IS HEAT?

Heat is a form of energy that flows between a body and its

surroundings by virtue of temperature difference between them.

S.I unit of heat is joule.

The practical or cgs unit of heat is calorie.
Dimension same as that of energy.
WHAT IS TEMPERATURE?
Temperature is a measure of degree of hotness and coldness
of a body.

To measure temperature of a body we use an

instrument called thermometer.

To measure temperature above 800∘ C, we use

Pyrometer.
DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE SCALES
 Relationship between different temperature scales

𝑇𝐶 − 0 𝑇𝐹 − 32 𝑇𝑅 − 0 𝑇𝑅𝑎 − 460 𝑇𝐾 − 273.15

= = = =
100 180 80 212 100
At −40∘ temperature, the celsius and fahrenheit scales read the same.
At 574.25∘ temperature, the fahrenheit and kelvin scales read the same.
Absolute Temperature
The lowest temperature of −273.16 ∘ C at which a gas is supposed to have zero
volume and zero pressure and at which entire molecular motion stops is called
absolute zero temperature.
T(K) = t ∘ C + 273.16
TRIPLE POINT OF WATER
The state at which three phases of water-ice, liquid water and water vapour are
equally stable and co-exist in equilibrium.
It is unique because it occurs at a specific temperature of 273.16 K and a specific
pressure of 0.46 cm of Hg column.
HUMIDITY
It is the amount of water vapour present in air.

SPEED OF SOUND INCREASES WITH HUMIDITY

THERMAL EXPANSION
When a body (almost all) is heated it expands. The expansion can take place in the
length, area or volume of the body. Depending upon the expansion in length, area
or volume we have three types of expansion.
Linear Expansion, Areal Expansion and Volume Expansion
Let 𝑙1 be the length of a wire at temperature
Linear Expansion
Let 𝑙1 be the length of a wire at temperature' 𝜃1 ' when temperature is increased to 𝜃2 ,
length increases to 𝑙2 then
Δ𝑙
𝛼= or 𝑙2 = 𝑙1 (1 + 𝛼Δ𝜃)
𝑙1 Δ𝜃

(Δ𝑙 change in length & change in temperature Δ𝜃 )

Where 𝛼 is coefficient of linear expansion.

Its unit is / ∘ C or /K.
It depends upon the nature of material.
The value of ' 𝛼 ' also depends on temperature but very slightly.
Superficial or Areal Expansion:
Increase in surface area of a solid when temperature is increased. If 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 be
the surface area at temperature 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 respectively then

Δ𝐴
𝛽= or, 𝐴2 = 𝐴1 (1 + 𝛽Δ𝜃)
𝐴1 Δ𝜃
' 𝛽 ' is coefficient of superficial expansion of a solid. Its unit is / ∘ C and /K, it
depends upon nature of material.
Cubical or Volume Expansion:
Increase in volume of a substance on heating. If 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are volumes of a
substance at temperature 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 respectively, then

Δ𝑉
𝛾= or, 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 (1 + 𝛾Δ𝜃)
𝑉1 Δ𝜃
Where ' 𝛾 ' is coefficient of cubical expansion of solid. Its unit is / ∘ C or /K and it
depends upon the nature of material.
𝛽 𝛾
The relation between (𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 is 𝛼 = =
2 3
CALORIMETRY
We know that there is spontaneous transfer of heat from a hot body to
colder body. If heat exchange with the surrounding is negligible then the
total heat lost by a hot body is always equal to the heat gained by the cold
body, this is the principle of calorimetry or, law of mixture.
Anomalous Expansion of Water
Almost all liquids expand on heating but water when heated
from 0∘ C to 4∘ C its volume decreases and hence density
increases until its temperature reaches 4∘ C as its density is
maximum at 4∘ C and on further heating its density decreases.
This behavior of water is unusual and is called as anomalous
behavior of water.
This allows aquatic animals to remain alive and move freely
near the bottom.
Heat capacity
Heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to
raise temperature of a body by unit degree.
OR
In simple terms, heat capacity is the amount of heat an object
can hold.

It is represented by 𝐶, its unit is J/ ∘ C or Cal ∘ C.

Heat capacity depends upon nature of

material and its mass.

 𝑄
Heat capacity, 𝐶 = = ms
Δ𝜃
Specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity of a material is equal to the

heat required to raise temperature of unit mass by
1 degree Celsius.
It depends upon the nature of material and its
surrounding.
If 𝑚 is mass, Δ𝜃 is temperature rise and 𝑄 is
the heat supplied, then

𝑄
𝑄 ∝ 𝑀 ⇒ 𝑄 ∝ Δ𝜃 or 𝑄 = 𝑀𝑠Δ𝜃 ⇒ 𝑠 =
𝑀Δ𝜃

where ' 𝑠 ' is constant called specific heat

UNITS OF SPECIFIC HEAT
Joules per kilogram-degree Celsius
OR
Calorie per gram-degree Celsius
Molar heat capacity
Molar heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of one mole of a substance by unit degree.

𝑄
𝑠𝑚 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = no. of moles
𝑛Δ𝜃
Change of State
Any state of a substance (solid/liquid/gas) can
be changed into another by heating or cooling.
The transition of a substance from one state to
another is called a change of state.
Some common changes of state:
(i) Melting: When heat is supplied, solid substance changes into liquid, this change of state of
substance is called melting.
Heat
Solid ⟶ Liquid

(ii) Freezing: When heat is released, liquid changes into solid, this change of state of substance is
called freezing.
Coel
Liquid ⟶ Solid
(iii) Condensation: When vapour is cooled, it changes into liquid, this change of state is called
condensation
Cool
Vapour ⟶ liquid
(iv) Evaporation: Conversion of liquid into gaseous state at all the temperatures is called evaporation
or boiling.
Heat
Liquid ⟶ Vapour

(v) Sublimation: It is the conversion of a solid directly into vapours.

Heat
Solid ⟶ Vapour
Latent Heat or Hidden Heat:
When state of a substance changes, change of
state takes place at constant temperature (M.pt.
or B. pt.) heat is released or absorbed and is
given by 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿 where 𝐿 is latent heat. The S.I.
unit of latent heat is 𝐽/kg.
Latent heat of fusion or melting 𝐿𝑓

It is the amount of heat required to change unit mass of

solid into liquid state at its melting point. It is

represented by 𝐿𝑓 . For ice its value is 80calg −1 .

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿𝑓
Latent heat of vaporization or boiling 𝐿𝑣 : It is

the amount of heat required to change unit mass of liquid into

its vapors at its boiling point. It is represented by 𝐿𝑣

For water 𝐿𝑣 = 540calg −1

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿𝑣
Latent heat of sublimation:

It is the amount of heat required to change unit

mass of solid into vapors. It is represented by
HEAT TRANSFER

Heat energy can be transferred from a body at higher

temperature to a body at lower temperature by three
different ways that are:-

Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Conduction

Conduction is the process in which heat is transmitted from one

point to the other through the substance without the actual
motion of the particles. When one end of a metal is heated, the
molecules at the hot end start vibrating with higher amplitudes
(kinetic energy) and transmit this K.E. to the next molecule and so
on. However, the molecules still remain in their mean positions of
equilibrium. This process of conduction is prominent in the case
of solids.
Convection
Convection is the process in which heat is transmitted from one place to the other
by the actual movement of the vibrating particles. It is prominent in the case of
liquids and gases.
Land and sea breezes and trade winds are formed due to convection. Convection
plays an important part in ventilation.

It is the process of transfer of heat in a fluid by the movement of the fluid itself.
CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION

BOTH INVOLVES PARTICLES GAINING KINECTIC ENERGY

IN CONVECTION THE PARTICLE THEMSELVES MOVE
Radiation
Radiation is the process in which heat is transmitted from one place to the other
directly without the necessity of any intervening medium. We get heat radiations
directly from the sun without affecting the intervening medium. Heat radiations
can pass through vacuum. Heat radiations are a part of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
A copper vessel has mass 150 g and the specific heat capacity of
copper is 410Jkg−1 K −1 . How much heat energy will be
required to increase the temperature of the vessel in from 25∘C
to 35∘C?
A 61.5 J
B 615 J
C 0.615 J
D 6150 J
Calculate the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 100 g of
copper from 20∘C to 70∘C. Specific heat capacity of copper 390 Jkg−1 K −1
A 1950 J
B 3900 J
C 3903 J
D None of the above
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY – measure of ability of the solid to
conduct heat through it.

𝐾 = coefficient of
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑇 thermal conductivity
Coefficient of thermal conductivity. = −𝐾𝐴
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 = area of the hotter
face

Units and dimension of 𝐾 are Jm−1 s −1 K −1 and MLT −3 K −1 .

ΔT
𝑄=𝑘A t
L
𝑄 = heat transferred
𝑘 = thermal conductivity
𝐴 = cross sectional area
ΔT = temperature difference between two ends
𝐿 = length
𝑡 = duration of heat transfer
When thermal radiations (𝑄)fall on a body, they are partly reflected, partly
absorbed and partly transmitted.

𝑄 = 𝑄𝑎 + 𝑄𝑟 + 𝑄𝑡
𝑄𝑎 𝑄𝑟 𝑄𝑡
+ + =𝑎+𝑟+𝑡 =1
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑎 = Absorptance, 𝑟 = Reflectance
𝑡 = Transmittance
Perfectly Black Body : A perfectly black body is that which absorbs completely the
radiations of all wavelengths incident on it.

• As a perfectly black body neither reflect nor transmit any radiation, therefore
the absorptance of a perfectly black body is unity, i.e., 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑟 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = 1.
Newton's Law of cooling
The rate of cooling of a body is directly proportional to the
temperature difference between the body and surrounding (for a
small temperature difference) and exposed area.
What is the mass of a material, whose specific heat capacity is
400 J/ kg ∘ C for a rise in temperature from 15∘ C to 25∘ C, when heat
received is 20 kJ ?
(a) 0 ⋅ 1 kg
(b) 1 kg
(c) 10 kg
(d) 5 kg
Thermal Equilibrium :-
It is observed that a higher temperature object which is in contact with a lower
temperature object will transfer heat to the lower temperature object. The
objects will approach the same temperature, and in the absence of loss to other
objects, they will then maintain a constant temperature. They are then said to
be in thermal equilibrium. Thermal equilibrium is the subject of the Zeroth law
of thermodynamics.
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C then
objects A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
• Internal energy (U): Internal energy of a system is the energy possessed by the
system due to molecular motion and molecular configuration.

• The energy due to molecular motion is called internal kinetic energy and that due
to molecular configuration is called internal potential energy

• Total internal energy 𝑈 = 𝑈𝐾 + 𝑈𝑃

First Law of Thermodynamics
If some quantity of heat is supplied to a system capable of doing external work, then the
quantity of heat absorbed by the system is equal to the sum of the increase in the internal
energy of the system and the external work done by the system.
i.e., ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
The first law of thermodynamics is essentially a restatement of the law of conservation of
energy i.e., energy can neither be created nor be destroyed but may be converted from one
form to another.

• Limitations of First Law of Thermodynamics

• It does not explain the direction of heat flow.

• It does not explain how much amount of heat given will be converted into work.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Kelvin-Planck statement : It is impossible for an engine
working between a cyclic process (a process in which system
returns to original state) to extract heat from a reservoir and
convert completely into work. In other words, 100%
conversion of heat into work is impossible.

Clausius Statement - No process is possible whose sole result is

the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter object.
HEAT ENGINES
Heat engine is a device which converts heat energy into work. A heat engine, in
general, consists of three parts:

• A source or high temperature reservoir at temperature T1 .

A working substance.
A sink or low temperature reservoir at temperature T2
In a cycle of heat engine, the working substance extracts
heat 𝑄1 from source, does some work 𝑊 and rejects
remaining heat 𝑄2 to sink.
REFRIGERATOR ;-
A refrigerator or heat pump is basically a heat engine runs in reverse direction.