COM122-PHYSICS II

TEMPERATURE AND ZEROTH LAW

OF THERMODYNAMICS
EUROPEAN UNIVERSITY OF LEFKE
Assist. Prof. Dr. Nemika CELLATOĞLU

1
 TEMPERATURE
• Temperature is an objective measurement of how hot
or cold an object is.
• Although it has such simple definition, many properties
of substance changes by changing its temperature.
(1) the volume of a liquid
(2) the dimensions of a solid
(3) the pressure of a gas at constant volume
(4) the volume of a gas at constant pressure
(5) the electric resistance of a conductor
(6) the color of an object
 TEMPERATURE
• Temperature can measured by different scales.

• A commonly used scale is Celcius, (centigrade ).

• The most important scale in scientific

work is the absolute, or Kelvin, which is also SI
unit of Temperature.
 THERMAL CONTACT

• We assume that two objects are in thermal

contact with each other if heat energy can be
exchanged between them by these processes
due to a temperature difference.
• If two objects with different temperatures are
brought to contact, heat energy is transferred
from hot one to cold one.
THERMAL CONTACT and ZEROTH LAW
OF THERMODYNAMICS
• . Heat transfer stops when both objects reach
to thermal equilibrium which means both
• objects have same, final temperature. Hot
object loses heat energy where cold object
gains heat energy during this process.

ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third object C, then A
and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
 QUESTION
A piece of copper is dropped into a beaker of
water. If the water’s temperature rises, what
happens to the temperature of the copper?
Under what conditions are the water and
copper in thermal equilibrium?
 THERMAL EXPANSION
• As mentioned above, several properties of a
system is changing with changes in
temperature.
• We can observe that, volume of an object may
change with changes in temperature, which is
known as Thermal Expansion.
• Thermal expansion is a consequence of the
change in the average separation between the
atoms in an object
 LINEAR EXPANSION
• Experiments showed that, change in lenght of
an object is directly proportional with change
in temperature.
If the temprature of this object rised from
initial temperature To to a final temperature T,
which T > To; then we will see that the lenght
of object will change, due to; change in the
average separation between the atoms in an
object.
 LINEAR EXPANSION

∆𝑳 = 𝝀 𝑳𝒐 ∆𝑻

• Linear Expansion Coefficient: Amount of

change in lenght per unit change in
Temperature.
LINEAR EXPANSION

It MUST be pointed out that 𝝀<<<<<1

and any 𝝀n ≈0 if n >1.
 VOLUME EXPANSION
• Lenght of an object is changing with change in
temperature which recults to a change in
volume of the object.

∆𝑽 = 𝜷 𝑽𝑶 ∆𝑻
Change in
Change in Volume Tempertare

Volume Expansion Initial Volume

Coefficient

NOTE THAT 𝜷 = 𝟑𝝀
 EXAMPLE
A copper telephone wire has essentially no sag
between poles 35.0 m apart on a winter day
when the temperature is 20.0°C. How much
longer is the wire on a summer day when
T=35.0°C?( 𝝀copper =17 ×10−6 0 𝐶 −1 )
 EXAMPLE
The 70-liter (L) steel gas tank of a car is filled to the top with gasoline at
20°C. The car sits in the Sun and the tank reaches a temperature of 40°C
(104°F). How much gasoline do you expect to overflow from the tank?
( 𝝀steel =17 ×10−6 0 𝐶 −1 𝝀gasoline = 3,2 ×10−4 0 𝐶 −1 )
 EXERCISE
A hollow aluminum cylinder 20.0 cm deep has an internal capacity of
2000 L at 20.0°C. It is filled with turpentine and then slowly warmed
to 80.0°C. How much turpentine overflows? (𝝀alum =24
×10−6 0 𝐶 −1 𝝀turbentine = 9 ×10−4 0 𝐶 −1 )
 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal
Gas
• The volume expansion equation

∆V = βVi ∆T.

Only for solids and liquids which have a fixed

volume at a given temperature.
Gases have no fixed volume at any given
temperature.
 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal
Gas
• The case for gases is completely different.
Interatomic forces within gases are very weak.
• it is useful to know how the quantities volume
V, pressure P, and temperature T are related
for a sample of gas of mass m.
• The equation of state, relates P, T and T ,
which is very complicated.
.
 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal
Gas
• In order to obtain a simpler equation of state, the
gas is maintained at low pressure(no density).

• At low pressure the equation of state can be

obtained experimentally, which the low-density
gas is known as , IDEAL GAS.

• It is much more convenient to use number of

moles,n, instead of mass, for the amount of gas
in a given volume .
 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal
Gas
• One mole of any substance is that amount of the substance
that contains Avogadro’s number of constituent particles of
any substance is that amount of the substance that contains
Avogadro’s number of constituent particles
n equals the ratio of the total number of
molecules and Avogadro’s number𝑁𝐴 ,
𝑛 = 𝑁ൗ𝑁
𝐴

The number of moles n of a substance is related to its mass m through

the expression;

where M is the molar mass of the substance.

 BEHAVIOUR OF GAS

1.At constant temperature, its pressure is inversely

proportional to the volume. (Boyle’s law 𝑃 𝛼 1Τ𝑉)

2. At constant pressure, the volume is directly

proportional to the temperature. (Charles’s law 𝑉 𝛼 𝑇 )

3. At constant volume, the pressure is directly

proportional to the temperature. (Gay–Lussac’s law
𝑃 𝛼 𝑇)
 EQUATION OF STATE FOR IDEAL GAS
• Listed observations of the behavior of gas,
results to a equation;

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
Note that the «R» within above equation is
IDEAL GAS CONSTANT.
 EQUATION OF STATE FOR IDEAL GAS

• Note that, for the number of moles ; 𝑛 = 𝑁ൗ𝑁𝐴

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 = (𝑁ൗ𝑁 )𝑅𝑇
𝐴
Where ; 𝑘𝐵 = 𝑅ൗ𝑁𝐴 (Boltzmann’s Constant)

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 = N𝑘𝐵 𝑇
EXAMPLE
 EXAMPLE
In state-of-the-art vacuum systems, pressures as
low as 10−9 Pa are being attained. Calculate the
number of molecules (N) in a 1.00𝑚3 vessel at
this pressure and a temperature of 27.0°C.
 HEAT AND INTERNAL ENERGY
• In previous section, we have stated that if you
bring two objects with different temperatures
to thermal contact, heat is transferred from
hot object to the cold object.

• Heat is a form of energy, which transfer is

based on temperature difference between
the system and its surroundings.
 HEAT AND INTERNAL ENERGY
• Heat is a form of energy, which SI unit is
Joule(J).
• Besides Joule, «calorie» (cal), is also used for
heat. 1 calorie is the amount of energy
transfer necessary to raise the temperature
of 1 g of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C.

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

 SPECIFIC HEAT
• It is well known that, if you add heat energy to a
substance(or object), the temperature of
substance (object) is rising.
• Which the amount of rise in temperature
depends on amount of substance and type of the
substance.
• Heat capacity «C» of a particular substance is as
the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of that sample by 1°C.
 SPECIFIC HEAT
• If we use the definition of specific heat, we
can obtain that;

• Where the specific heat capacity «c» of a

substance is the heat capacity per unit mass.
 SPECIFIC HEAT AND HEAT
• The definitions of heat and specific heat
capacity, helps us to define Heat(Q) as;

𝑄 = mc∆𝑇
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF SPECIFIC
SUBSTANCES
 EXAMPLE
Calculate the heat required to rise temperature
of 2 kg water from 5𝑜 𝐶 𝑡𝑜 15𝑜 𝐶?
( 𝑐 = 4186 ൗ )
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑗
𝑘𝑔 ℃
 CALORIMETRY
• Specific heat capacity of an object can be
measured by calorimetry which is an isolated
vessel containing water at known temperture.

• If a substance(object) is put into calorimetry,

the changes in temperature of water let’s us
to obtain specific heat capacity of substance.
(heat transfer occurs just between water and
object)
 CALORIMETRY

Substance
x
water
 EXAMPLE
A 0.050 0-kg ingot of metal is heated to 200.0°C and then
dropped into a calorimeter containing 0.400 kg of water initially
at 20.0°C. The final equilibrium temperature of the mixed system
is 22.4°C. Find the specific heat of the metal.
 LATENT HEAT
• We learn that, heat transfer from/to
substances results with change in
temperature.
• If substance changes the phase, no change in
temperature will be observed although heat
is transferred to or from the system.
 LATENT HEAT
• Phase changes involve a change in the system’s internal energy,
but no change in its temperature.

«Internal energy is all the energy of a system that is associated with

its microscopic components—atoms and molecules—when viewed
from a reference frame at rest with respect to the center of mass of
the system»[SERWAY]

• The increase in internal energy in boiling, for example,

is represented by the breaking of bonds between molecules in the
liquid state; this bond breaking allows the molecules to move
farther apart in the gaseous state, with a corresponding increase in
intermolecular potential energy. [SERWAY]
 LATENT HEAT
• Internal molecular arrangement differences of
substances results different responses to heat energy
transfer during phase change.

• Also mass of the substance, changes the required

energy required to change the phase of susbtance.

• LATENT HEAT (L) is the amount of energy required to

change phase of unit mass of substance.
𝑄 = ±𝑚𝐿
 LATENT HEAT
• Latent heat of fusion 𝑳𝑭 is the amount of
energy required to change phase from solid to
liquid (or liquid to solid)
• Latent heat of vaporization 𝑳𝒗 is the amount
of energy required to change phase from
liquid to gas (or gas to liquid.)
Latent Heats of Different Substances
 EXAMPLE
• Consider the energy required to convert a
1.00-g cube of ice at 30.0°C to steam at
120.0°C.
• From A to B ;

• During B;
• From B to C;

• During D;
• From D to E;

The total amount of required energy is, 3.11 × 103 𝐽.

 THERMODYNAMICS
• Thermodynamics is the branch of Physics
which is dealing with heat, work,
temperature, and the statistical behavior of
systems with large numbers of particles.
• In thermodynamics, the state of a system is
determined by using such variables as
pressure, volume, temperature, and internal
energy.
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS and
WORK
Now let’s assume that we push the piston
inward compress the gas, slowly enough to
allow the system to remain essentially in
internal thermal equilibrium at all times. As
the piston is pushed downward by an
external force ;

𝐹Ԧ = −𝐹 𝑗Ƹ

Through a displacement of piston;

𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑟 𝑗Ƹ
 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS and
WORK
The work done by the Force, F ;

Note that; 𝐴𝑑𝑦 ,in above expression is 𝑑𝑉 which

lets us to rewrite 𝑑𝑊 ;

Ԧ with infinitely small

Which is done by force 𝐹,
displacement of 𝑑 𝑟.
Ԧ [for each slow motion of
piston]
 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS and
WORK
• The total work done on the gas as its volume
changes from 𝑉𝑖 to 𝑉𝑓 is given by the integral
of Equation;
𝑉𝑓
𝑊 = − න 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝑉𝑖
• Note that in order to solve above integral, we
need to know how pressure is changing
according to volume (generally, volume is not
constant)
 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS and
WORK
• The change in pressure according to changes
in volume is shown in PV-diagrams.
The curve on a PV diagram is called the path taken
between the initial and final states.

The work done on a gas in a quasi-static(slow enough

to keep thermal equilibrium) process that takes the
gas from an initial state to a final state is the negative
of the area under the curve on a PV diagram,
evaluated between the initial and final states
 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS and
WORK
• Below diagrams shows different paths taken
to change the intial volume of a gas to final
volumes.
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The First Law of thermodynamics is a special case
of conservation of energy law.
• The First Law of Thermodynamics staes that, the
internal energy of a system can change by heat
and work;

∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄 + 𝑊

Note that; internal energy is a state variable like P, V

and T.
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• If the system goes and infinitesimal change in
the state; The first law can be expressed as;

𝑑𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑑𝑄 + 𝑑𝑊
 THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS(isolated systems)
• Isolated systems are the systems , which are
isoleted in a way that no interaction with the
surroundings exist.
• With no interaction with the surroundings,
no energy transfer (no heat transfer) occurs and
no work is done on the system.
• Above statements results with no change in
internal energy which

∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0, 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

 THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS(cyclic systems)
• Cyclic thermodynamic processes are the
processes which the volume undergoes some
changes during the process but, the initial and
final volumes are same.
• In a cyclic process, the net work done
on the system per cycle equals the area
enclosed by the path representing the
process on a PV diagram
 APPLICATIONS OF FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS (ISOVOLUMETRIC PROCESS)
Isovolumetric Process : The volume is constant during
process, where the initial state of the system is Pİ , Tİ
and Vİ and the final state of the system is PF , TF and
still Vİ .
Remember that
𝑉𝐹
𝑊= − ‫𝑃 𝑉׬‬ 𝑑𝑉
İ

Since V= constant during process dV=0 and

𝑾𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 = 𝟎
 APPLICATIONS OF FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS (ISOBARIC PROCESS)
• Isobaric Process: The pressure is constant during process,
where the initial state of the system is Pİ , Tİ and Vİ and the
final state of the system is Pi , TF and VF .
Remember that

𝑉
𝑊 = − ‫𝑉𝑑 𝑃 𝐹 𝑉׬‬
İ

𝑉
Since P = constant during process 𝑊 = −𝑃 ‫𝑉𝑑 𝐹 𝑉׬‬
İ
𝑾𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 = −𝑷(𝑽𝑭 − 𝑽İ )
 APPLICATIONS OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
(ISOTHERMAL PROCESS)

Isothermal Process : The temperature is constant during

process, where the initial state of the system is Pİ , Tİ and Vİ and
the final state of the system is PF , Tİ and VF .
Remember that
𝑉𝐹
𝑊= − ‫𝑃 𝑉׬‬ 𝑑𝑉
İ
Remember that we are working
with ideal gas
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 and 𝑃 =
𝑉
𝑉𝐹 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑉𝐹 𝑑𝑉
𝑊= − ‫𝑉׬‬ 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑛𝑅𝑇 ‫𝑉׬‬
İ 𝑉 İ 𝑉
 APPLICATIONS OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
(ISOTHERMAL PROCESS)

𝑉𝐹
𝑊 = −𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln 𝑉𝐹 − ln 𝑉İ = −𝑛𝑅𝑇 ln( )
𝑉İ

Note that ; the process is isothermal so 𝑃İ 𝑉İ =

𝑉𝐹 𝑃İ
𝑃𝐹 𝑉𝐹 and =
𝑉İ 𝑃𝐹
So ;
𝑽𝑭 𝑷İ
𝑾𝑰𝑺𝑶𝑻𝑯𝑬𝑹𝑴𝑨𝑳 = − 𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝐥𝐧 = −𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝐥𝐧
𝑽İ 𝑷𝑭
 APPLICATIONS OF FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS (Adiabatic Process)
• Adiabatic Process : It is a special process that,
the system changes its state from Pİ , Tİ and Vİ
to PF , TF and still VF but no heat is added to
the system.
• If we check the First Law of Thermodynamics
for Adiabatic Process,

∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑊
 EXAMPLE
A 1.0-kg bar of copper is heated at atmospheric pressure so that
its temperature increases from 20°C to 50°C. (A) What is the
work done on the copper bar by the surrounding atmosphere?
(B)How much energy is transferred to the copper bar by heat?
(C) What is the increase in internal energy of the copper bar?
(A)
 SOLUTION
B)

C)
 EXAMPLE
A sample of ideal gas is expanded to twice its
original volume of 1.00 𝑚3 in a quasi-static
process for which P= αV , with α =5.00 atm/m,
as shown in left figure How much work is done
on the expanding gas?
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION
 ENERGY TRANSFER MECHANISMS
Heat energy can be transferred by 3 main ways
which are;
1- CONDUCTION
2-CONVECTION
3- RADIATION
 CONDUCTION
• During conduction the heat transfer occurs on
atomic scale as an exchange of kinetic energy
between molecules, atoms, and free electrons—
in a way that less-energetic particles gain energy
in collisions with more
energetic particles.

HEAT transfer with conduction occurs when objects

are in thermal contact.
 CONDUCTION
• The Law of thermal conduction can be written
𝑄
as the rate 𝑃 = ൗ∆𝑡 which energy tranfer
occurs as ;

• Where k is the thermal conductivity, A is the

area of the conducting slab and 𝑑𝑇Τ𝑑𝑥 , is the
temperature gradient.
 CONDUCTION
• Assume that we have a rod which one end is
in contact with an hot object;

and results to;

 CONDUCTION
• For a compound slab containing several
materials of thicknesses L1, L2, . . . and
thermal conductivities k1, k2, . . . , the rate of
energy transfer through the slab at steady
state is
 CONVECTION
• Liquids and gases can transfer heat rapidly by
convection. Convection is the process
whereby heat flows by the bulk movement of
molecules from one place to another.
 CONVECTION
• Conduction involves molecules (and/or
electrons) moving only over small distances
and colliding, convection involves the
movement of large numbers of molecules
over large distances.
 RADIATION
• As stated above, conduction occurs with the
collision of particles, where convection simply
occurs with the motion of particles.
• Above statement results with the requirement
of matter for transfering heat by conduction
or convection.
• The main difference of radiation from
conduction and convection is the requirement
of no matter or medium for the heat transfer.
 RADIATION
• The rate at which an object radiates energy is proportional
to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Known as
Stefan’s law, this behavior is expressed in equation form as;

• The factor 𝜀 called the emissivity, is a number between 0

and 1 that is characteristic of the surface of the radiating
material. and 𝜎 is a universal constant called
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant which has the value
 Additional Problems
1- The 70-liter (L) steel gas tank of a car is filled to the top with gasoline at
20°C. The car sits in the Sun and the tank reaches a temperature of 40°C
(104°F). How much gasoline do you expect to overflow from the tank? (
𝝀steel =17 ×10−6 0 𝐶 −1 𝝀gasoline = 3,2 ×10−4 0 𝐶 −1 )

2-
3-

4- A petrol tanker loads 40,000 L of fuel in

Darwin and drives it to Sydney, where the
temperature is 25°C higher. How many litres of
petrol does he deliver?
(𝜆petrol = 3,16 ×10–4 K–1)
5-One mole of an ideal gas does 3 000 J of work
on its surroundings as it expands isothermally to
a final pressure of 1.00 atm and volume of 25.0
L. Determine (a) the initial volume and (b) the
temperature of the gas
6-An ideal gas initially at 300 K undergoes an
isobaric expansion at 2.50 kPa. If the volume
increases from 1.00 m3 to 3.00 m3 and 12.5 kJ is
transferred to the gas by heat, what are (a) the
change in its internal energy and (b) its final
temperature?