Chapter Nine

Taylor and Laurent Series

9.1. Taylor series. Suppose f is analytic on the open disk |z  z 0 |  r. Let z be any point in
this disk and choose C to be the positively oriented circle of radius , where
|z  z 0 |    r. Then for sC we have


z  z 0  j
1 1 1
s  z  s  z 0   z  z 0   s  z 0 1
1
zz 0   s  z 0  j1
sz 0 j0

since | zz
sz 0 |  1. The convergence is uniform, so we may integrate
0


fs fs
 s  z ds    s  z 0  j1
ds z  z 0  j , or
C j0 C


fs fs
fz  1
2i
 s  z ds   1
2i
 ds z  z 0  j .
C j0 C
s  z 0  j1

We have thus produced a power series having the given analytic function as a limit:


fz   c j z  z 0  j , |z  z 0 |  r,
j0

where

fs
cj  1
2i
 s  z 0  j1
ds.
C

This is the celebrated Taylor Series for f at z  z 0 .

We know we may differentiate the series to get



f z   jc j z  z 0  j1
j1

9.1
and this one converges uniformly where the series for f does. We can thus differentiate
again and again to obtain


f n z   jj  1j  2 j  n  1c j z  z 0  jn .
jn

Hence,

f n z 0   n!c n , or
f n z 0 
cn  .
n!

But we also know that

fs
cn  1
2i
 s  z 0  n1
ds.
C

This gives us

fs
f n z 0   n!
2i
 s  z 0  n1
ds, for n  0, 1, 2,  .
C

This is the famous Generalized Cauchy Integral Formula. Recall that we previously
derived this formula for n  0 and 1.

What does all this tell us about the radius of convergence of a power series? Suppose we
have


fz   c j z  z 0  j ,
j0

and the radius of convergence is R. Then we know, of course, that the limit function f is
analytic for |z  z 0 |  R. We showed that if f is analytic in |z  z 0 |  r, then the series
converges for |z  z 0 |  r. Thus r  R, and so f cannot be analytic at any point z for which
|z  z 0 |  R. In other words, the circle of convergence is the largest circle centered at z 0
inside of which the limit f is analytic.

9.2
Example

Let fz  expz  e z . Then f0  f  0   f n 0   1, and the Taylor series for f
at z 0  0 is


ez   1 zj
j!
j0

and this is valid for all values of z since f is entire. (We also showed earlier that this
particular series has an infinite radius of convergence.)

Exercises

1. Show that for all z,


e  e  1 z  1 j .
z

j0
j!

n
2. What is the radius of convergence of the Taylor series  c j z j for tanh z ?
j0

3. Show that


z  i j
1 
1z  1  i j1
j0

for |z  i|  2.

1
4. If fz  1z
, what is f 10 i ?

5. Suppose f is analytic at z  0 and f0  f  0  f  0  0. Prove there is a function g

analytic at 0 such that fz  z 3 gz in a neighborhood of 0.

6. Find the Taylor series for fz  sin z at z 0  0.

7. Show that the function f defined by

9.3
 sin z
z for z  0
fz 
1 for z  0

is analytic at z  0, and find f  0.

9.2. Laurent series. Suppose f is analytic in the region R 1  |z  z 0 |  R 2 , and let C be a

positively oriented simple closed curve around z 0 in this region. (Note: we include the
possiblites that R 1 can be 0, and R 2  .) We shall show that for z  C in this region

 
bj
fz   a j z  z 0    j
z  z 0  j
,
j0 j1

where
fs
aj  1
2i
 s  z 0  j1
ds, for j  0, 1, 2, 
C

and

fs
bj  1
2i
 s  z 0  j1
ds, for j  1, 2,  .
C

The sum of the limits of these two series is frequently written


fz   c j z  z 0  j ,
j

where

fs
cj  1
2i
 s  z 0  j1
ds, j  0, 1, 2,  .
C

This recipe for fz is called a Laurent series, although it is important to keep in mind that
it is really two series.

9.4
Okay, now let’s derive the above formula. First, let r 1 and r 2 be so that
R 1  r 1  |z  z 0 |  r 2  R 2 and so that the point z and the curve C are included in the
region r 1  |z  z 0 |  r 2 . Also, let  be a circle centered at z and such that  is included in
this region.

Then fs
sz is an analytic function (of s) on the region bounded by C 1 , C 2 , and , where C 1 is
the circle |z|  r 1 and C 2 is the circle |z|  r 2 . Thus,

fs fs fs

 s  z ds   s  z ds   s  z ds.
C2 C1 

(All three circles are positively oriented, of course.) But  fs

sz ds  2ifz, and so we have


fs fs
2ifz   s  z ds   s  z ds.
C2 C1

Look at the first of the two integrals on the right-hand side of this equation. For sC 2 , we
have |z  z 0 |  |s  z 0 |, and so

1 1
s  z  s  z 0   z  z 0 

 s 1 z 0 1
1   zz
sz 0 
0


z  z0 j
 s 1 z 0  s  z0
j0

  1
s  z 0  j1
z  z 0  j .
j0

9.5
Hence,


fs fs
 s  z ds    ds z  z 0  j
C2 j0 C2
s  z 0  j1

fs
 .  j1
ds z  z 0  j
j0 C
s  z 0 

For the second of these two integrals, note that for sC 1 we have |s  z 0 |  |z  z 0 |, and so

1 1 1 1
s  z  z  z 0   s  z 0   z  z 0 1   sz
zz 0 
0

 
 z 1 s  z0 j
 z0  z  z0   s  z 0  j 1
z  z 0  j1
j0 j0
 
  s  z 0  j1 1   1 1
j1  z
z 0  j
j1 s 0  j1
 z z z 0  j


As before,


fs fs
 s  z ds     ds 1
C1 j1 C1
s  z 0  j1 z  z 0  j

fs
   ds 1
j1 C
s  z 0  j1 z  z 0  j

Putting this altogether, we have the Laurent series:

fs fs
fz  1
2i
 1
s  z ds  2i  s  z ds
C2 C1
 
fs fs
  1
2i
 ds z  z 0  j   1
2i
 ds 1 .
j0 C
s  z 0  j1 j1 C
s  z 0  j1 z  z 0  j

Example

9.6
Let f be defined by

fz  1 .
zz  1
First, observe that f is analytic in the region 0  |z|  1. Let’s find the Laurent series for f
valid in this region. First,

fz  1   1z  1 .
zz  1 z1

From our vast knowledge of the Geometric series, we have


fz   1z   z j .
j0

Now let’s find another Laurent series for f, the one valid for the region 1  |z|  .
First,
1  1 1 .
z1 z 1 1
z

Now since | 1z |  1, we have

 
1  1
z1 z
1
1 1
 1z z j
  z j ,
z j0 j1

and so


fz   1z  1   1z   z j
z1
j1

fz   z j .
j2

Exercises

8. Find two Laurent series in powers of z for the function f defined by

9.7
 fz  1
z 2 1  z

and specify the regions in which the series converge to fz.

9. Find two Laurent series in powers of z for the function f defined by

fz  1
z1  z 2 

and specify the regions in which the series converge to fz.

1
10. Find the Laurent series in powers of z  1 for fz  z in the region 1  |z  1|  .

9.8