Respiratory System

 Cells get their energy by oxidation ( breakdown of glucose) in the form of ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate)
 Any organ that facilitates oxygen diffusion into the blood and carbon dioxide diffusion out of the blood is called
a respiratory organ.
Respiratory System
 If the respiratory organs are lungs, it is called Pulmonary respiration.
 The respiratory system in humans can be studied in two parts:
 Respiratory tract
 Respiratory organs
Respiratory Tract:
 The human respiratory tract consists of:
 Nose: A pair of nostrils (external nares) at the bottom of the nose lead into a vertical chamber. (NASAL CHAMBER)
 2 Nasal chambers are separated by Nasal septum
 Nasal chamber opens into pharynx by internal nares
 Nasal chamber has hairs that act as strainers and filter dust
Nose Breathing
 The nose has hairs that act as strainers, filtering air and preventing dust and particles from entering the respiratory
tract.
 The nose also sterilizes the air by trapping bacteria and other pathogens in mucus.
 Additionally, the nose moisturizes air with mucus and warms it by radiating heat.
 The nose contains olfactory epithelium, which allows for the sense of smell.
Pharynx
 The nose opens into the pharynx through internal nares.
 The pharynx is divided into the upper nasopharynx and the lower oropharynx.
 The oropharynx leads into the larynx and the esophagus via the glottis and gullet, respectively.
 The glottis is guarded by the epiglottis, which prevents anything other than air from entering the larynx.
 The esophagus remains partially closed due to longitudinal foldings in its lining.
 The pharynx acts as a common pathway for both air and food.
Larynx
 The larynx is the upper portion of the trachea or Windpipe.
 It is more prominent in men and is referred to as the "Adam's apple."
 The larynx is supported by cartilages and contains vocal cords which help with the production of sound.
 The larynx moves upwards during swallowing, closing the glottis to prevent food from entering.
Trachea
 The trachea, or windpipe, is a long, narrow tube that extends from the neck into the chest.
 It is supported by C-shaped cartilaginous rings that keep it open.
 The trachea is lined with ciliated epithelium that filters the air.
Primary Bronchi
 The trachea branches into two primary bronchi (right and left) that enter the corresponding lungs.
 They are also supported by cartilaginous rings.
Lungs
 The lungs are the primary respiratory organs, located within the chest cavity.
 They are thin-walled, elastic, and spongy, allowing for expansion and contraction during breathing.
 They are protected by the bony thoracic cage.
 The Pleural Sac
 Each lung is enclosed in a double-walled pleural sac.
 The inner membrane is called visceral layer.
 The outer as parietal layer of pleural sac.
 In-between the two layers is present a space called pleural cavity full of a fluid called pleural fluid.
 The pleural fluid is secreted by the pleural sac and performs the following functions:
 It protects the lungs from any kind of mechanical injury and shock.
 It lubricates the lungs for free expansion and relaxation.
 It keeps the lungs moist for proper functioning.
 Structure of the Lungs
 Each lung is a conical triangular structure.
 The upper pointed side is called apex and the lower broad side is called base.
 The left lung is slightly smaller than the right lung.
 The left lung is differentiated into two lobes.
 The right lung is divided into three lobes with the help of furrows.
  Each primary bronchus, after entering into the corresponding lung, divides repeatedly to form a network of very
fine tubes (Fig. 14.3).
 The primary bronchus divides into secondary bronchi that give rise to tertiary bronchi.
 The tertiary bronchi divide into bronchioles which give rise to alveolar ducts that open into blind end sacs called
alveoli.
 In the lungs of man are present 600 million alveoli.
 Total surface area of the alveoli is about 100 m² which is 50 times more than the external surface area.
 Physiology of Respiration
 The process of respiration is a complex and continuous process.
 It is completed in four steps:
 Breathing
 External respiration
 Internal or Tissue respiration and
 Cellular respiration.
 Breathing
 Movement of fresh air from outside into the lungs through respiratory tract and foul air in the opposite direction is
called breathing.
 The process of breathing is an apparent and mechanical part of respiration.
 A human being breathes about 20000 times a day inhaling about 35 lb of air.
 It is six times the amount of food and drink consumed.
 Man breathes 12-14 times per minute at rest.
 Mechanism of breathing
 Due to the poor musculature of lungs, they cannot expand or contract of their own.
 Brought by changing volume of thoracic cavity
 Two steps-
1) Inspiration
 Definition: The movement of fresh air into the lungs is called inspiration.
 Mechanism:
 The volume of the thoracic cavity is increased by the combined movements of the sternum, ribs, and
diaphragm.
 The sternum and ribs move upwards, forwards, and outwards by the contraction of external intercostal
muscles.
 The diaphragm, which is normally arched, becomes straight.
 These activities increase the volume of the thoracic cavity, which is further assisted by the relaxation of the
abdominal muscles.
 Outcome:
 The increase in the thoracic cavity results in the expansion of the lungs.
 Due to increase in volume pressure inside lungs decreases compared to atmospheric pressure
 Therefore, atmospheric rushes in to equalize pressure
 Exchange of o2 and co2 takes place between alveoli and blood
Expiration
 Definition: The movement of foul air from the lungs to the outside is called expiration or exhalation.
 Nature: It is a passive process that involves the reversal of all the activities that take place during inspiration.
 Mechanism:
 Decreased thoracic cavity volume: The volume of the thoracic cavity decreases due to the inward and
downward movements of the ribs and sternum, and by the upward bulging of the diaphragm.
 Pressure changes: As the volume of the lungs decreases, the pressure of air inside the lungs also decreases.
 Air expulsion: The pressure inside the lungs becomes lower than the atmospheric pressure. This pressure
difference forces the air out of the lungs, through the respiratory tract.
 Exchange of gases: As the air leaves the lungs, oxygen (O2) diffuses from the blood into the alveoli, and carbon
dioxide (CO2) diffuses from the alveoli into the blood.
 Control of Breathing
 Breathing is controlled by the two breathing centres present in the medulla oblongata of the brain.
 These centres are influenced by the CO₂ concentration in the blood.
  Increasing the CO₂ concentration in the blood increases the rate of breathing.

External Respiration:-
 Exchange of gases between the inhaled air and blood through the surface of the respiratory organ is called external
respiration.
 Higher partial pressure of O2 in the inhaled air and CO2 in the blood causes diffusion of O2 into the blood from the
alveoli and CO2 into the alveoli from the blood.
 The process occurs due to the difference in partial pressure.
Do You Know?
 Process of breathing and swallowing of food cannot happen at the same time.
 Rate of breathing is at minimum when a person is sleeping.
 Painful breathing is called dyspnoea.
 Cessation of breathing is called apnoea.
 Normal comfortable breathing is called eupnoea.
 Internal Respiration : Exchange of gases between blood and body tissues
 O2 diffuses from blood to tissues
 CO2 diffuses from tissues to blood
 Transport of O2
 About 97% binds to Haemoglobin
 Remaining 3% dissolves in plasma
 Transport of CO2
 About 7% combines with water in plasma
 About 23% combines with haemoglobin
 About 70% combines with potassium and sodium bicarbonates
 Carbonic Anhydrase is an enzyme that helps release CO2 from unstable compounds in lungs.
 Cellular Respiration
 Biological oxidation of glucose in cells
 Equation : C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP
 Multistep process catalyzed by enzymes
 ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) stores the energy released.
Difference between Breathing vs. Respiration from the book.
Pulmonary Air Volumes and Lung Capacities
 Spirometry is the process of measuring changes in lung volume
 Spirometer is the instrument used to measure lung volume.
 CAPACITIES OF THE LUNG-
 Tidal Volume: The amount of air inhaled and exhaled during normal breathing (500mL)
 Dead Air Space: The air in the respiratory passages that does not participate in gas exchange (150 mL)
 Alveolar Air: The air in the alveoli that participates in gas exchange (350 mL)
 Inspiratory Reserve Volume: The amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inspiration (3000 mL)
 Inspiratory Capacity: Total amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal expiration (3500 mL)
 Expiratory Reserve Volume: The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal expiration (1000 mL)
 Vital Capacity: The maximum amount of air that can be inhaled and exhaled (4500 mL)
 Residual Volume: The amount of air that remains in the lungs after a forceful exhalation (1500 mL)
 Total Lung Capacity: The total volume of air in the lungs (6000 mL)
 Composition of Inspired, Expired, and Alveolar Air
 The composition of the inspired, expired, and alveolar air changes due to gas exchange.
 Inspired air: 20.84% oxygen, 0.04% carbon dioxide, 78.62% nitrogen
 Expired air: 16.4% oxygen, 4.0% carbon dioxide, 74.5% nitrogen
 Alveolar air: 13.6% oxygen, 5.3% carbon dioxide, 74.9% nitrogen
 Effects of Altitude on Breathing
 Artificial Hypoxia: A condition that occurs at high altitudes, characterized by breathlessness, headache, dizziness,
nausea, vomiting, mental fatigue, bluish tinge on the skin and mucous membrane, loss of hearing, lack of muscular
coordination, and even complete blackout.
 Hypoxia: A condition in which the amount of oxygen available to the body is lower than the required amount.
 Asphyxia
 Asphyxia or Suffocation: A condition in which deficiency of oxygen to the body is accompanied by the increase in
carbon dioxide concentration in the blood.
 It can paralyze the respiratory centers, stopping the process of breathing and causing death if the cause
 Some Common Disorders Of Respiratory System
 Bad Cold: Disease-causing microbes present in the inhaled air attack respiratory tract.
 Pharyngitis: Inflammation of the mucous membrane in various regions and increased secretion, often called sore
throat and is usually accompanied by tonsillitis.
 Laryngitis: Inflammation in the larynx, causing hoarse voice and difficulty in speaking.
 Bronchitis: Inflammation in the bronchioles.
 Pneumonia: Alveoli do not get enough air to support life due to the accumulation of mucus in them.
 Emphysema: Air pollutants cause chronic bronchitis and break-down the alveoli of the lungs, reducing the surface
area for gas exchange.
 Bronchial Asthma: Allergic attack of breathlessness associated with bronchial obstruction or spasm (contraction),
characterised by expiratory wheeze.
 Some Experiments On Breathing
 Experiment 1: To demonstrate that water is lost during breathing
 Aim: To demonstrate that water is lost during breathing. Apparatus: Cold glass slide, cobalt chloride
paper. Procedure: Exhale gently on a cold glass slide. Observations: Droplets of colourless liquid are formed on the
surface of slide which turns cobalt chloride paper pink. Inference: The droplets formed on the cold surface of glass
slide are of water which condense on the cold surface.
 Experiment 2: To demonstrate the role of diaphragm in breathing
 Aim: To demonstrate the role of diaphragm in breathing. Apparatus: Bell jar, Rubber Sheet, 2-Rubber balloons, Y-
tube. Procedure: Set up the experiment as shown in Fig. 14.7 and make sure that the set-up is
airtight. Correspondence between the various parts of this experiment and breathing in man:
 Bell jar to thoracic cavity
 Y-tube to trachea and bronchi
 Balloons to lungs
 Rubber sheet to diaphragm Observations:
 Pulling the rubber sheet downwards: Balloons are inflated or become distended.
 Pushing the rubber sheet upwards: Balloons again get deflated and collapse. Inference:
 Pulling the rubber sheet downwards: Increases the volume of bell jar, hence pressure decreases. Air rushes into
the balloons through the Y-tube and balloons get inflated (inspiration).
 Pushing the rubber sheet upwards: Decreases the volume of bell jar, hence pressure increases
 Some Common Disorders Of Respiratory System
 Bad Cold: Disease-causing microbes present in the inhaled air attack respiratory tract.
 Pharyngitis: Inflammation of the mucous membrane in various regions and increased secretion, often called sore
throat and is usually accompanied by tonsillitis.
 Laryngitis: Inflammation in the larynx, causing hoarse voice and difficulty in speaking.
 Bronchitis: Inflammation in the bronchioles.
 Pneumonia: Alveoli do not get enough air to support life due to the accumulation of mucus in them.
 Emphysema: Air pollutants cause chronic bronchitis and break-down the alveoli of the lungs, reducing the surface
area for gas exchange.
 Bronchial Asthma: Allergic attack of breathlessness associated with bronchial obstruction or spasm (contraction),
characterised by expiratory wheeze.

READ EXPERIMENTS AND TABLES ESPECIALLY PG-162 AND 163