Module 1.

Respiratory system (Revision)

Respiratory system
• The respiratory system (also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a
biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas
exchange in animals
• Its function is to provide oxygen to the blood and eliminate carbon dioxide, a
toxic substance generated as a waste from cellular metabolism.
Anatomy of Respiratory system
1. Nostrils
• The nostrils are the beginning of the
respiratory system.
• These are two cavities located in the nose and
separated by what is known as the sagittal
septum.
• In addition to having the neurons involved in
the sense of smell, they are the main routes of
entry and exit of air.
• Since they contain a mucous membrane
(secretes the famous mucus) and a nasal hair
that, together, retain the large particles so
that they do not continue their journey and, in
addition, heat the air so that it does not reach
cold to the rest of the structures, which it
could cause irritation.
 2. Mouth
• The mouth is part of the
respiratory system but we
shouldn't inhale through it. And
the fact is that although it allows
air to enter, as it lacks a mucous
membrane and villi, it is not
effective when it comes to
retaining potentially dangerous
particles or heating the air.
• For this reason, it is very
important, in the sense of
preventing damage to the other
respiratory structures, to remove
the habit of inhaling through the
mouth and to make sure that we
always do it through of the nose,
that is, of the nostrils.
 3. Pharynx
• The pharynx is the second
major structure of the
respiratory system, although it
is also part of the digestive.
• It is a tube located in the neck
that connects the mouth with
the esophagus and the
nostrils with the larynx, the
next respiratory structure.
• Therefore, its function is to
conduct the inhaled air but
also to carry the food and
liquids that we consume to
the esophagus, through which
they will reach the stomach
for digestion.
Larynx

The larynx is a complex band of cartilage, ligament, and

muscle as well as a mucous membrane.
A hollow structure, it’s formed of three
large sections of cartilage that are
unpaired—the thyroid, cricoid, and
epiglottis—as well as six smaller
cartilages.
• Thyroid cartilage: This largest cartilage in the larynx composes the
front and side portions of its structure. The right and left halves
(laminae) fuse in the midline to create a projection forward—the
laryngeal prominence, which is commonly known as the Adam’s
apple.
• The larynx primarily is an organ associated with
vocalization and making sound. Basically, when
you exhale, air is pushed through the glottis, and,
it’s the vibrations of the vocal cords that produce
noise and sound.
• During speech, the positioning of these vocal
cords changes to affect pitch and volume, which
can be further modulated by the tongue and
relative position of the mouth as necessary for
speech.
• Additionally, the larynx plays an important role in
preventing food from becoming stuck in the
airway. When people swallow, the epiglottis shifts
downward, blocking off the trachea. The food or
liquid then moves to the esophagus, which runs
alongside the trachea, and delivers material to the
stomach.
The epiglottis is a leaf-shaped cartilaginous structure that is part of the laryngeal skeleton. It’s usually directed upward
toward the pharynx, like an open door through which air passes to the trachea.

During swallowing, it prevents entry to the larynx—closing the door, so to speak—to stop food, liquid, and saliva (and
coins) from entering the trachea.
Lower Respiratory tract
5. Trachea
• The trachea is a tube that extends
from the larynx and is still
cartilaginous in nature, not muscular.
Starting from this larynx, the trachea
descends to the fourth thoracic
vertebra, more or less at the level of
the heart.
• Therefore, it has a length of between
10 and 15 centimeters and a diameter
of 2.5 centimeters.

• Its main function is to bring air into

the lungs when we inhale and expel it
when we exhale.
• And since there are two lungs, the
trachea, in its lowest region,
bifurcates in two, giving rise to two
tubes and each of them enters one of
the lungs.
6. Lungs
• The lungs are the center of the respiratory system.
• They consist of two pink sacs that occupy a large part of the thoracic
cavity and inside which gas exchange takes place.
• Both lungs are not exactly symmetrical to each other.
• The left is a little smaller than the right since it has to share space
with the heart.
• Inside these lungs there are different very important structures that
allow oxygen to enter the circulation and carbon dioxide to exit.
6.1. Lobes
• The lobes are basically the
sections that each of the lungs
are divided into. The right is
divided into three: upper, middle
and lower. And the left one,
which, as we have already said, is
smaller, in two: lower and upper.
Function :
• to generate a kind of folds in the
lung membrane (the pleura,
which we will discuss later) that
allow the lungs to expand with
each inspiration without
mechanically forcing this pleura.
• Air does not flow through them
but they are very important.
6.2. Bronchi
• The bronchi are the names they
receive each of the two extensions of
the trachea when they are already inside
the lungs. Therefore, it is really the
intrapulmonary portion of the trachea.
And the most important thing, in
addition to being the central air inlet
highway, is that they branch out into
bronchioles.
6.3. Bronchioles
• The bronchioles are each of the branches
that arise from the two bronchi. As if
from a tree, the bronchi branch into
increasingly narrower bronchioles until
they cover the entire internal volume of
the lungs. There are about 300,000
bronchioles in each lung and they have
the vital function of continuing to
conduct air, in this case to the alveoli.
6.4. Pulmonary alveoli
• If the lungs are the center of the respiratory system, these alveoli are the functional
center of these lungs.
• It is in them that gas exchange actually takes place. These are small sacs between 0.1
and 0.2 millimeters in diameter that are found at the end of the narrowest bronchioles.
• There are more than 500 million alveoli in the lungs and their main characteristic is that
their wall is lined by blood capillaries.
• When we inhale, the alveoli fill with oxygenated air. And when this happens, the oxygen
in the air passes directly into the bloodstream by simple diffusion through the capillaries.
• When it passes into the blood, red blood cells release carbon dioxide to stay with oxygen
(they have more chemical affinity for it).
• And when they have released the carbon dioxide, it passes into the alveoli, again, by
diffusion. Then, the alveoli are loaded with air with this gas, which comes out through
expiration, following the reverse path that we have just seen.
6.5. Pleura
• The pleura is a connective
tissue membrane that lines
each lung, allowing only two
openings: those of the two
bronchi. In this sense, the
pleura is the lung covering
and, in addition, it is
surrounded by a mucosa
that helps the lungs stay
lubricated.
• It allows them to expand and
contract easily, prevents
friction with the rib cage,
protects internal areas and
absorbs shocks and trauma
so that the structures
through which the air flows
are never present in danger.
7. Diaphragm
• We leave the lung and go to
another structure that, despite
not being directly involved in
the air flow, is a fundamental
part of the respiratory system.
We are talking about the
diaphragm, a dome-shaped
muscle located below the
lungs It contracts during
inspiration to help the lungs
work and relaxes during
expiration.
• Thus, it offers mechanical
support to the other organs of
the respiratory system and
ensures that the lungs are
always kept in their correct
position.
Mechanism of Breathing
• The breathing mechanism involves two
processes: Inspiration and Expiration
• In the process of inspiration, there
would be a contraction of muscles
attached to the ribs on the outer side
which pulls out the ribs and results in
the expansion of the chest cavity.
• Later, the diaphragm, contracts, moves
downwards and expands the chest cavity
resulting in the contraction of the
abdominal muscles.
• The expansion of the chest cavity
produces a partial vacuum which sucks
air into the lungs and fills the expanded
alveoli.
Mechanism of Inspiration
• The process of intake of atmospheric air is known as inspiration. It is an
active process.
• When the volume of the thoracic cavity increases and the air pressure
decreases, inspiration takes place.
• Contraction of external intercostal muscles increases the volume of the
thoracic cavity.
• Contraction of the diaphragm further increases the size of the thoracic
activity. Simultaneously, the lungs expand.
• With the expansion of the lungs, the air pressure inside the lungs
decreases.
• The atmospheric air rushes inside the lungs.
Expiration
• The expiration process is considered once after the gaseous
exchange occurs in the lungs and the air is expelled. This
expulsion of air is called expiration.
• During this process, muscles attached to the ribs contract, the
muscles of the diaphragm and the abdomen relax which leads
to a decrease in the volume of the chest cavity and increases
the pressure of the lungs, causing the air in the lungs to be
pushed out through the nose.
Mechanism Of Expiration

•The process of exhaling carbon dioxide is called

expiration. It is a passive process.
•It occurs when the size of the thoracic activity decreases.
Now the external intercostal muscles relax and the
internal intercostal muscles contract.
•As a result, the ribs are pulled inwards and the size of the
thoracic cavity is reduced.
•The diaphragm is relaxed and the lungs get compressed.
•Consequently, the pressure increases and the air is
forced outside.
Mechanism of Respiration
Involves breathing mechanism and exchange of gases.
The gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion in the alveoli. It depends upon the pressure differences between blood and
tissues, or atmospheric air and blood. The exchange of gases takes place at the surface of the alveolus.
The exchange of gases takes place in the following manner:

Transport Of Oxygen
Oxygen in the blood is carried to the tissue in two forms- Oxyhaemoglobin- chemical composition of oxygen with
haemoglobin, and solution of oxygen in the blood plasma. The oxygen in the blood combines with haemoglobin when
the concentration of oxygen is high in the blood.
Hb4+4O2→Hb4O8 (oxyhemoglobin)

Oxyhemoglobin, being unstable, dissociates to release oxygen. Low oxygen, low pH and high temperatures stimulate the
dissociation process.
Hb4O8→dissociates to give→Hb+O2

Internal Respiration
The gaseous exchange taking place in the tissues is called internal respiration. Here, the oxygen carried in the form of
oxyhemoglobin gets dissociated to release oxygen.
This oxygen breaks down glucose to release carbon dioxide, water, and energy. The energy is utilized by the
body, while the carbon dioxide is diffused from the tissues.
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+Energy(2870kJ)
Transport Of Carbon dioxide From Tissues To Lungs
Carbon dioxide is transported by three mechanisms:

In dissolved state: About 5−7 per cent of carbon dioxide is transported, being dissolved in the plasma of
blood.

In the form of bicarbonate: Some carbon dioxide dissolves in the water of plasma to form carbonic acid.
The enzyme carbonic anhydrase found in RBCs catalyzes this reaction
CO2+H2O→H2CO3
Carbonic acid ionizes to form bicarbonate ions. The hydrogen ions are catalyzed by the enzyme carbonic
anhydrase. Bicarbonate ions combine with sodium and potassium to form sodium bicarbonate and
potassium bicarbonate.
CO2+H2O→H+ + HCO3-
Hydrogen ions combine with the haemoglobin to form haemoglobinic acid and bicarbonate ions
combined with sodium or potassium present in the blood to form sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) or
Potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3). Almost 70 per cent of carbon dioxide is transported from tissues to the
lungs in this form.

In combination with the amine group of protein: (carbaminohemoglobin):

Carbon dioxide reacts directly with the amine radicals (NH2) of haemoglobin molecules and forms a
carbanionhemoglobin.
It is finally carried to the lungs and released out of the body through expiration.
Intrapleural Breathing
• Intrapleural breathing is used to refer to the pressure that is present in the space
between the pleura and the lungs. This space is referred to as the pleural cavity. The
pressure in this region is normally less than the atmospheric pressure. This is the reason
why pleural pressure is termed as negative pressure.
• The lung movement is governed by the pressure gradient, the transpulmonary pressure,
which exists between the pleura and the lungs. The difference in the pressures between
intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures is known as transpulmonary pressure.
• The pressure in the pleural cavity while breathing turns negative while there is an
increase in the transpulmonary pressure causing the lungs to expand. While expiration,
the lungs recoil as a result of an increase in the pleural pressure.
• The competing forces inside the thorax results in the formation of negative intrapleural
pressure, one of these forces is associated with the lung’s elasticity. The lungs have
elastic tissues which cause it to be pulled inwards off the thoracic wall. An inward pull of
the lung tissue is also generated by the surface tension of the alveolar fluid. The inward
tension generated from the lungs is opposed by forces from the thoracic wall and the
pleural fluid.
Respiratory Gas Transport
• After the gases have scattered in the lungs, causing the blood to become
oxygenated, leaving carbon dioxide, the next phase of transportation of
oxygen-rich blood to the tissues takes place. Meanwhile, the next round of
deoxygenated blood needs to be brought to the lungs for the cycle to
continue.

• In the bloodstream, the transportation of gases occurs all through the body
which is contributed to the cardiovascular system comprising the blood
vessels and the heart. The blood carrying oxygen leaves the lungs to flow
into the heart through the pulmonary veins, which are pumped to the rest
of the body from the left ventricle through the aorta and its corresponding
branches.