Chapter 14

Gases exchange
 The diffusion of gases from an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration, especially the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
between an organism and its environment.

 In plants, gas exchange also takes place during photosynthesis.

 In animals, gases are exchanged during respiration.

 Ventilation/breathing is mechanical and involves the movement of air.

 Respiration is physiologic and involves the exchange of gases in the alveoli

(external respiration) and in the cells (internal respiration).

 gills, lungs, specialized areas of the intestine or pharynx (in certain

fishes), or tracheae (air tubes penetrating the body wall, as in insects).
 RESPIRATORY SURFACE
The area or space where the gas exchanges take place
 Characters of respiratory surface
1. It must be permeable to the gases.
2. It should be thin( 1mm or less) to allow diffusion effectively.
3. The respiratory surface must have a large surface area for maximum oxygen
uptake in minimum time.
4. It must be richly supplied with blood vessels for maximum oxygen uptake.
 Respiratory System Of Man
 The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you
breathe.
 It includes your airways, lungs and blood vessels.
 The muscles that power your lungs are also part of the respiratory system.
 These parts work together to move oxygen throughout the body and clean
out waste gases like carbon dioxide.
 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Bronchioles
 Alveolar duct
 Alveoli
 Functions Of Respiratory System
 The respiratory system has many functions. Besides helping you inhale
(breathe in) and exhale (breathe out), it:

 Allows you to talk and to smell.

 Warms air to match your body temperature and moisturizes it to the

humidity level your body needs.

 Delivers oxygen to the cells in your body.

 Removes waste gases, including carbon dioxide, from the body when you
exhale.

 Protects from harmful substances and irritants.

 Lungs
 Lungs are main organs of respiratory system serves as site for gases
exchange between body and environment.
 The lungs lie either side of the mediastinum, within the thoracic cavity.

 Each lung is surrounded by a pleura. A pleura is a serous membrane that

folds back on itself to form a two-layered membranous pleural sac.

 The outer layer is called the parietal pleura and attaches to the chest wall.

 The inner layer is called the visceral pleura and covers the lungs.

 The left lung is slightly smaller than the right – this is due to the presence of
the heart.

 The right lung has three lobes; superior, middle and inferior.

 The left lung has two lobes; superior and inferior lobe.
 The lobes are divided from each other by fissures.
 Main Components Of Human Respiratory system
 The respiratory system is divided into the upper respiratory tract and the
lower respiratory tract.
 The upper respiratory tract includes the external nose, the nasal cavity, the
pharynx, the lower respiratory tract includes the larynx, the trachea, the
bronchi, and the lungs.
 Nose
 The nose consists of the external nose and the nasal cavity.
 The external nose is the visible structure that forms a prominent feature of
the face.
 Most of the external nose is composed of hyaline cartilage, although the
bridge of the external nose
consists of bone.
 The bone and cartilage
are covered by connective
tissue and skin.
 The nares or nostrils, are
the external openings of the
nose, and the choanae (internal
nostrils) are the openings into
the pharynx.
 The nasal cavity extends
from the nares to the choanae.
 The nasal septum is a partition dividing the nasal cavity into right and left
parts.
 The hard palate forms the floor of the nasal cavity, separating the nasal
cavity from the oral cavity.
 Air enters the nasal cavity through the nares.
 Just inside the nares, the lining of the cavity is composed of stratified
squamous epithelium containing coarse hairs.
 The hairs trap some of the large particles of dust suspended in the air.
 The rest of the nasal cavity is lined with pseudo stratified columnar
epithelial cells containing cilia and many mucus-producing goblet cells .
 Mucus produced by the goblet cells also traps debris in the air.
 The cilia sweep the mucus posteriorly to the pharynx, where it is
swallowed.
 As air flows through the nasal cavities, it is humidified by moisture from the
mucous epithelium and warmed by blood flowing through the superficial
capillary networks underlying the mucous epithelium.
 The sneeze reflex dislodges foreign substances from the nasal cavity.
 People have a photic sneeze reflex, which is stimulated by exposure to
bright light, such as the sun.
 Sometimes the photic sneeze reflex is fancifully called ACHOO.
 Pharynx
 The common passageway for both the respiratory and the digestive
systems.
 Air from the nasal cavity and air, food, and water from the mouth pass
through the pharynx.
 Inferiorly, the pharynx leads to the rest of the respiratory system through
the opening into the larynx and to the digestive system through the
esophagus.
 The pharynx can be
divided into three regions:
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngo-pharynx.
 Larynx
 It is located in the anterior throat and extends from the base of the tongue
to the trachea.
 It is a passageway for air between the pharynx and the trachea.
 The vocal folds are the primary source of voice production.
 Air moving past the vocal folds causes them to vibrate, producing sound.
 Muscles control the length and tension of the vocal folds.
 An inflammation of the mucous epithelium of the vocal folds is
called laryngitis.
Swelling of the vocal folds
during laryngitis inhibits voice
production.
 Trachea or windpipe
 It is a tube attached to the larynx.
 It consists of connective tissue and smooth muscle, reinforced with 16–20
C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage.
 Adult trachea is about 1.4–1.6 centimeters (cm) in diameter and about 10–
11 cm long.
 The trachea is lined with pseudo stratified columnar epithelium, which
contains numerous cilia and goblet cells.

 The cilia propel mucus produced

by the goblet cells, as well as
foreign particles embedded in the
mucus, out of the trachea,
through the larynx, and into
the pharynx, from which they
are swallowed.
 Bronchi
 The trachea divides into the left and right main bronchi or primary
bronchi, each of which connects to a lung.
 The left main bronchus is more horizontal than the right main bronchus
because it is displaced by the heart.
 Like the trachea, the main bronchi are lined with pseudo stratified ciliated
columnar epithelium and are supported by C-shaped pieces of cartilage.
 The bronchi continue to branch many times, finally giving rise
to bronchioles.
 The bronchioles also subdivide numerous times to give rise to terminal
bronchioles, which then subdivide into respiratory bronchioles.
 Each respiratory bronchiole subdivides to form alveolar ducts, which are
like long, branching hallways with many open doorways.
 The doorways open into alveoli (hollow sacs), which are small air sacs.
 The alveoli become so numerous that the alveolar duct wall is little more
than a succession of alveoli.
 There are about 300 million alveoli in the lungs.
 Mechanism of Breathing
 The mechanism of Breathing involves two stages: inspiration during which
the air is going in and expiration by which the alveolar air goes out to the
lungs.
 The movement of air into and out of the lungs is carried out by creating a
pressure gradient between the lungs and the atmosphere.

 Inspiration
1. It is also called inhalation. .
2. The air or water is taken into the respiratory organ.
3. It is an active process.
4. The external intercostal muscles contract and draw the ribs up and out,
which creates space in the thoracic cavity for inhalation and expansion of the
lungs.
5. Rib cage moves forward and outward.
6. Diaphragm contracts and becomes flattened.
7. Increase in volume of thoracic cavity.
 Expiration
1. It is also called exhalation
2. The air or water is sent out of the respiratory organ.
3. It is a passive process.
4. The internal intercostal muscles contract and compress the thoracic cavity,
which helps expel air out during forced exhalation
5. Rib cage moves downward and inward.
6. Diaphragm relaxes and becomes original dome shaped.
7. Decrease in volume of thoracic cavity.
 Lung Capacity and Volume
 Respiratory volumes are also known as lung volumes.
 In human adult, lung capacity is five liters of air.
 Measurement of lung volume is an essential part to observe pulmonary
function.
 These volumes vary due to some factors: race, gender, age, body
composition and respiratory diseases.
 Lung volume is measured by spirometer and technique is known as
spirometry.
 Total lung volume of air is about 6000 millimeter (6 liters) which generally
enters the lungs during breathing.
 In normal breathing, human takes in and gives out air approximately 450 to
500 mm.
 This volume is called tidal volume.
 On other hand, vital volume is the maximum air inspired and expired
during deep breath which is 5000 ml.
 Expiratory reserve volume is volume of air that is expired beyond a restful
expiration.
 Its value is about 1200-1500 ml.
 Inspired reserve volume is volume of air which can be inspired beyond
restful inspiration.
 Its value is 2000 ml.
 Residual volume that remains in lungs is about 1000 ml and can not allow
thorax to collapse.
 Controlling the mechanism of breathing
 We can control our breathing for minimal period of time but generally our
breathing is controlled involuntary.
 The automatic breathing is controlled by mutual association of respiratory
and cardiovascular system.
 It is observed that high concentration of carbon dioxide and H+
concentration in blood are stimuli to increase rate of breathing .
 The high concentration of these substances in blood are detected by
specific chemoreceptors called aortic and carotid bodies found in aorta and
carotid arteries.
 Medulla oblongata, lower part of brain is responsible to detect any change
in cerebrospinal fluid.
 Medulla oblongata send message to intercostal muscles for increasing rate
of breathing.
 TRANSPORTATION OF GASES IN HUMAN
 Transport Of Oxygen
 The inhaled air has high concentration of oxygen which develop
concentration gradient across the respiratory surfaces.
 The oxygen from air rushes into blood through alveolar wall.
 Around 97% oxygen is transported by red blood cells and 3% by blood
plasma.
 4 Oxygen molecules attach to hemoglobin molecule of RBCs and form
oxyhaemoglobin.
 At the level of cells, oxygen molecule detach from haemoglobin and diffuse
 into cells.
 The diffused oxygen breaks down the glucose molecule to release carbon
dioxide, water and energy.
 The body utilizes the energy while tissue diffuses out carbon dioxide into
capillaries.
 Transport of Carbon Dioxide
 When carbon dioxide from tissue fluid diffuses into blood, the blood is said
to be deoxygenated.
 The color of deoxygenated blood is dark maroon.
 There are three ways to transport carbon dioxide into blood.
1. As bicarbonate of sodium and potassium
2. As carbaminohaemoglobin
3. As dissolved gas in the form of carbonic acid
 About 70% of carbon dioxide is transported by RBCs water in the form of
sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate in presence of zinc activated
enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
 This enzyme reacts with carbon dioxide and water and form carbonic acid.
 Carbonic acid dissociate into hydrogen and bicarbonate ion.
 Bicarbonate ion combine with sodium and potassium ion to form sodium
bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate.
H2CO3 ———————> H+ + HCO3–
(In RBC) K+ + HCO3– ————-> KHCO3
(In plasma) Na+ + HCO3 ————> NaHCO3
 Approximately 20-23 % carbon dioxide combines with haemoglobin in red
blood cell to form carbaminohaemoglobin.
 The remaining 7-10% carbon dioxide dissolves in the plasma water of blood
and transported to lungs.
CO2 + H2O——————–> H2CO3
 The chloride shift or "Hamburger effect" describes the movement of
chloride into RBCs which occurs when the buffer effects of deoxygenated
haemoglobin increase the intracellular bicarbonate concentration, and the
bicarbonate is exported from the RBC in exchange for chloride.
 This exchange of ions occurs across the surface of the red blood cells and
this phenomenon is vital to maintaining the pH of the blood.
 Role of respiratory pigments
 A respiratory is a molecule which increases oxygen carrying capacity of
blood and tissues.
Examples: Haemoglobin and myoglobin

 Haemoglobin
 It is a respiratory pigment present in RBCs of all vertebrates.
 There are four chains of amino acids in haemoglobin.
 Each chain bears an iron containing heme group.
 Each haemoglobin carry four oxygen molecules.
 The oxyhaemoglobin dissociates and releasing oxygen at tissue level and
bring carbon dioxide back to lungs.

 Myoglobin
 It is a single chain globular protein smaller than haemoglobin found in
muscles.
 It binds more tightly to oxygen than haemoglobin.
 It also contain heme group which bind only one oxygen.
 It store the oxygen in muscles for short period of time.
 Sinuses
 These are hollow air filled cavities found in skull linked to nasal air passage
way.
 Human have four pairs of nasal cavities.
Frontal Sinus: fore head region
Maxillary Sinus: behind cheeks
Ethmoid Sinus: between eyes
Sphenoid Sinus: located deep in Ethmoid.
 Respiratory Disorders
 Sinusitis
 It is an inflammation of the tissues in your sinuses (spaces in your forehead,
cheeks and nose usually filled with air).
 Symptoms
 It causes facial pain
 Postnasal drip (mucus dripping down your throat).
 Runny nose with thick yellow or green mucus.
 Stuffy nose.
 Facial pressure (particularly around your nose, eyes and forehead).
 This might get worse when you move your head around or bend over.
 Pressure or pain in your teeth.
 Ear pressure or pain.
 Fever.
 Cause:
 It’s usually caused by the common cold, but other viruses, bacteria, fungi
and allergies can also cause sinusitis.
Otitis Media
 An ear infection, also called acute otitis media, is a sudden infection in your
middle ear.
 The middle ear is the air-filled space between your eardrum and inner ear.
 It houses the delicate bones that transmit sound vibrations from your
eardrum to your inner ear so you can hear.
 Eustachian tubes are canals that connect your middle ear to the back of
your throat.
 They regulate air pressure in your ear and prevent fluid from accumulating
in your middle ear space.
 If a Eustachian tube doesn’t function well, fluid has a hard time draining
from your middle ear space and can cause muffled hearing.
 Ear infections (from viruses and bacteria) also cause middle ear fluid.
 In these cases, the middle ear fluid is infected and often causes discomfort
in addition to muffled hearing.
 Symptoms
 Loss of appetite.
 Trouble sleeping.
 Trouble hearing in the ear that’s blocked.
 A feeling of fullness or pressure in your ear.
 Yellow, brown or white drainage from your ear. (This may mean that your
eardrum has broken.)
 Bacteria and viruses cause ear infections. Often, ear infections begin after a
cold or another upper respiratory infection.
 The germs travel into your middle
ear through the eustachian tube.
 Once inside, the virus or
bacteria can cause your
eustachian tubes to swell.
 The swelling can cause the tube to
become blocked, leading to poor
eustachian tube function and infected
fluid in your middle ear.
Pneumonia
 It is an infection in your lungs caused by bacteria, viruses or fungi.
 Pneumonia causes your lung tissue to swell (inflammation) and can cause
fluid or pus in your lungs.
 Bacterial pneumonia is usually more severe than viral pneumonia, which
often resolves on its own.
 Pneumonia can affect one or both lungs.
 Pneumonia in both of your lungs is called bilateral or double pneumonia.
 Infection with Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria, also called
pneumococcal disease, is the most common cause.
 Aspiration pneumonia
Aspiration is when solid food, liquids, spit or vomit go down your trachea
(windpipe) and into your lungs. If you can’t cough these up, your lungs can get
infected.
 symptoms
 Congestion or chest pain.
 Difficulty breathing.
 A fever of 102 degrees Fahrenheit (38.88 degrees Celsius) or higher.
 Coughing up yellow, green or bloody mucus or spit.
 Tuberculosis
 It is a bacterial infection that is also known as TB.
 It can be fatal if not treated. TB most often affects your lungs, but can also
affect other organs like your brain.
 TB is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
 The germs are spread through the air and usually infect the lungs, but can
also infect other parts of the body.
 Although TB is infectious, it doesn’t spread easily.
 TB can be spread when a person with active TB disease releases germs into
the air through coughing, sneezing, talking, singing or even laughing.
 Symptoms
 Bad cough (lasting longer than two weeks).
 Pain in your chest.
 Coughing up blood or sputum (mucus).
 Fatigue or weakness.
 Loss of appetite.
 Weight loss.
 Chills.
 Fever.
 Night sweats.
 Emphysema
 Emphysema is a lung disease that results from damage to the walls of the
alveoli in your lungs.
 A blockage (obstruction) may develop, which traps air inside your lungs.
 If you have too much air trapped in your lungs, your chest may appear fuller
or have a barrel-chested appearance.
 With fewer alveoli, less oxygen moves into your bloodstream.
 The main cause of emphysema is smoking, but other causes include air
pollution and chemical fumes.
Symptoms include shortness of breath, coughing and fatigue.
Lung cancer
 It is a disease caused by uncontrolled cell division in your lungs.
 Your cells divide and make more copies of themselves as a part of their
normal function.
 But sometimes, they get changes (mutations) that cause them to keep
making more of themselves when they shouldn’t.
 Damaged cells dividing uncontrollably create masses, or tumors, of tissue
that eventually keep your organs from working properly.
 symptoms
 A cough that doesn’t go away or gets worse over time.
 Trouble breathing or shortness of breath (dyspnea).
 Chest pain or discomfort.
 Wheezing.
 Coughing up blood (hemoptysis).
 Hoarseness.
 Loss of appetite.
 Unexplained weight loss.
 Unexplained fatigue (tiredness)
Small pupil and drooping eyelid in one eye with little or no sweating on that
side of your face (Horner’s syndrome).