The Respiratory System
Organs of the Respiratory system
Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs –
alveoli
Function of the Respiratory System
I. Oversees gas exchanges between the blood and external
environment
II. Exchange of gasses takes place within the alveoli
III. Passageways to the lungs purify, warm, and humidify the
incoming air
IV. Lung defence mechanism
V. Metabolic and endocrine : surfactant, histamine,
prostaglandins; remove prostaglandins, bradykinin,
serotonin, Ach; activates angiotensin I to II
VI. Protection:
The Nose
The only externally visible part of the
respiratory system
Air enters the nose through the external
nares (nostrils)
The interior of the nose consists of a nasal
cavity divided by a nasal septum
Upper Respiratory Tract
Figure 13.2
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
Olfactory receptors are located in the
mucosa on the superior surface
The rest of the cavity is lined with
respiratory mucosa
Moistens air
Traps incoming foreign particles
Anatomy of the Nasal Cavity
Lateral walls have projections called conchae
Increases surface area
Increases air turbulence within the nasal
cavity
The nasal cavity is separated from the oral
cavity by the palate
Anterior hard palate (bone)
Posterior soft palate (muscle)
Paranasal Sinuses
Cavities within bones surrounding the nasal
cavity
Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone
Ethmoid bone
Maxillary bone
Paranasal Sinuses
Function of the sinuses
Lighten the skull
Act as resonance chambers for speech
Produce mucus that drains into the nasal
cavity Produce mucus that drains into the
nasal cavity
Pharynx (Throat)
Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
Three regions of the pharynx
Nasopharynx – superior region behind nasal
cavity
Oropharynx – middle region behind mouth
Laryngopharynx – inferior region attached to
larynx
The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are
common passageways for air and food
Structures of the Pharynx
Auditory tubes enter the nasopharynx
Tonsils of the pharynx
Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the
nasopharynx
Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx
Lingual tonsils at the base of the tongue
Larynx (Voice Box)
Routes air and food into proper channels
Plays a role in speech
Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages and a
spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage
(epiglottis)
Vocal cords - vibrate with expelled air to
create sound (speech)
Structures of the Larynx
Thyroid cartilage
Largest hyaline cartilage
Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
Epiglottis
Superior opening of the larynx
Routes food to the larynx and air toward
the trachea
Glottis – opening between vocal cords
Trachea (Windpipe)
Connects larynx with bronchi
Lined with ciliated mucosa
Beat continuously in the opposite direction of
incoming air
Expel mucus loaded with dust and other
debris away from lungs
Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline
cartilage
Primary Bronchi
Formed by division of the trachea
Enters the lung at the hilus
(medial depression)
Right bronchus is wider, shorter,
and straighter than left
Bronchi subdivide into smaller
and smaller branches
Lungs
Ocupy most of the thoracic cavity
Apex is near the clavicle (superior
portion)
Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
Left lung – two lobes
Right lung – three lobes
Lungs
Coverings of the Lungs
Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung
surface
Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic
cavity
Pleural fluid fills the area between layers of
pleura to allow gliding
The Pleura
2 layers- Visceral & Parietal.
Intrapleural space
-a film of fluid-secreted by the
pleura & NO AIR
The lungs remain in contact
with the chest wall –allowing
them to move with the
thoracic cavity
Pleura
Respiratory Tree Divisions
Primary bronchi
Secondary bronchi
Tertiary bronchi
Bronchioli
Terminal bronchioli
Smallest branches Bronchioles
of the bronchi
All but the
smallest branches
have reinforcing
cartilage
Terminal
bronchioles end
in alveoli
Respiratory Zone
Structures
Respiratory bronchioli
Alveolar duct
Alveoli
Site of gas exchange
Alveoli
Structure of alveoli
Alveolar duct
Alveolar sac
Alveolus
Gas exchange takes place within the alveoli in
the respiratory membrane
Squamous epithelial lining alveolar walls
Covered with pulmonary capillaries on
external surfaces
Respiratory Membrane (Air-Blood
Barrier)
Muscles of respiration
% of gases in inspired air
Oxygen-- 20-21
Carbondioxide – 0.04
Nitrogen - 78
Inert gases – 1%
Water vapour - variable
% of expired air
Oxygen – 16
Carbondioxide- 4
Nitrogen = 78
Inert gases – 1
Water vapour – more on expiration
Gas Exchange
Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by
diffusion
Oxygen enters the blood
Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
Macrophages add protection
Surfactant coats gas-exposed alveolar
surfaces
Events of Respiration
Pulmonary ventilation – moving air in and out
of the lungs
External respiration – gas exchange between
pulmonary blood and alveoli
Respiratory gas transport – transport of
oxygen and carbon dioxide via the
bloodstream
Internal respiration – gas exchange between
blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries
Mechanics of Breathing
(Pulmonary Ventilation)
Mechanical process
Depends on volume changes in the thoracic
cavity
Volume changes lead to pressure changes,
which lead to equalize pressure of flow of gases
2 phases
Inspiration – flow of air into lung
Expiration – air leaving lung
Inspiration
Diaphragm and
intercostal muscles
contract
The size of the thoracic
cavity increases
External air is pulled
into the lungs due to an
increase in
intrapulmonary volume
Inspiration
Movement of the Rib Cage during
Inspiration
Movement of the Rib Cage during
Inspiration
Expiration
Passive process dependent up on natural
lung elasticity
As muscles relax, air is pushed out of the
lungs
Forced expiration can occur mostly by
contracting internal intercostal muscles to
depress the rib cage
Expiration
Movement of the Diaphragm
Movement of the Diaphragm
Movement of the Diaphragm
Respiratory System
Overview of external and cellular respiration
Pressure Differences in the Thoracic
Cavity
Normal pressure within the pleural space is
always negative (intrapleural pressure)
Differences in lung and pleural space pressures
keep lungs from collapsing
Pressure Changes during Quiet
Breathing
Pressure in the Pleural Cavity
Pressure in the Pleural Cavity
Pneumothorax results in collapsed lung that can not function
normally
Nonrespiratory Air Movements
Caused by reflexes or voluntary actions
Examples
Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of debris
Laughing
Crying
Yawn
Hiccup
Branching of the Airways
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air
with each breath - tidal volume (TV)
Many factors that affect respiratory capacity
A person’s size
Sex
Age
Physical condition
Residual volume of air – after exhalation,
about 1200 ml of air remains in the lungs
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly
over the tidal volume
Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
Approximately 1200 ml
Residual volume
Air remaining in lung after expiration
About 1200 ml
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Functional volume
Air that actually
reaches the
respiratory zone
Usually about 350 ml
Respiratory capacities
are measured with a
spirometer
Respiratory Sounds
Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope
Bronchial sounds – produced by air rushing
through trachea and bronchi
Vesicular breathing sounds – soft sounds of
air filling alveoli
External Respiration
Oxygen movement into the blood
The alveoli always has more oxygen than
the blood
Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the
area of lower concentration
Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
External Respiration
Carbon dioxide movement out of the blood
Blood returning from tissues has higher
concentrations of carbon dioxide than air
in the alveoli
Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon
dioxide
Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich and
carbon dioxide-poor
Gas Transport in the Blood
Oxygen transport in the blood
Inside red blood cells attached to hemoglobin
(oxyhemoglobin [HbO2])
A small amount is carried dissolved in the
plasma
Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
Most is transported in the plasma as
bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
A small amount is carried inside red blood
cells on hemoglobin, but at different binding
sites than those of oxygen
Internal Respiration
Exchange of gases between blood and body
cells
An opposite reaction to what occurs in the
lungs
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to
blood
Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue
Internal Respiration
Neural Regulation of Respiration
Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to
the brain by the phrenic and intercostal nerves
Neural centers that control rate & depth are
located in the medulla
The pons appears to smooth out respiratory rate
Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15 min.
Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often due
to extra oxygen needs
Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and
Depth
Physical factors
Increased body temperature
Exercise
Talking
Coughing
Volition (conscious control)
Emotional factors
Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and
Depth
Chemical factors
Carbon dioxide levels
Level of carbon dioxide in the blood is the
main regulatory chemical for respiration
Increased carbon dioxide increases
respiration
Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on
the medulla oblongata
Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate and
Depth
Chemical factors (continued)
Oxygen levels
Changes in oxygen concentration in the
blood are detected by chemoreceptors
in the aorta and carotid artery
Information is sent to the medulla
oblongata
Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
System
Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus
Lungs are not fully inflated with air until two
weeks after birth
Surfactant that lowers alveolar surface tension
is not present until late in fetal development
and may not be present in premature babies
Aging Effects
Elasticity of lungs decreases
Vital capacity decreases
Blood oxygen levels decrease
Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
decreases
More risks of respiratory tract infection
Respiratory Rate Changes Throughout
Life
Respiration rate:
Newborns – 40 to 80 min.
Infants – 30 min.
Age 5 – 25 min.
Adults – 12 to 18 min
Rate often increases with old age
