CHAPTER -14
BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES
Respiration involves the following steps :
• Breathing or pulmonary ventilation by which
atmospheric air is drawn in and CO2 rich alveolar air is
released out.
• Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar
membrane.
• Transport of gases by the blood.
• Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
• Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and
resultant release of CO2.
BREATHING/RESPIRATION
RESPIRATORY ORGANS
Organism Mechanism
Sponges, Simple diffusion
coelenterates -
flatworms
Earthworm, Moist skin
Frog
Insects Tracheal tubes
Aquatic Branchial/Gills
arthropods,
molluscs, fish
Amphibians, Pulmonary/lungs
reptiles,
mammals
➢ Amphibians show cutaneous respiration.
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HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Functions
IMPORTANT POINT
➢ Thoracic Chamber
➢ Any change in the volume of the thoracic cavity will be
reflected in the lung (Pulmonary cavity).
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MECHANISM OF BREATHING
➢ Lungs, enclosed in an anatomically air tight thoracic
chamber; essential
for breathing as we cannot alter pulmonary volumes directly.
➢ Movement of air follows the pressure gradient.
➢ Specialised set of structures involved in breathing:
Normal rate of breathing 12-16 times/minute in adult human
Involve
Inspiration Expiration
Intrapulmonary pressure Low High
Pressure in the lungs w.r.t. -ve +ve
atmosphere
Shape of diaphragm Flat Dome-
shaped
EXCHANGE OF GASES
➢ Partial pressure drives respiration
➢ Site of exchange:
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○ Alveoli (Primary)
○ Between blood and tissues
➢ Partial pressure:
○ Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture
of gases
➢ Exchange of gases is based on:
○ Concentration gradient
○ Thickness of membrane
○ Solubility of gases - CO2 is 20-25% more soluble than
O2
○ Any factor that affects diffusion rate
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➢ The thinner the membrane involved in diffusion, the
faster is the diffusion of gases
➢ Total thickness of the respiratory membrane is less than
a millimetre.
RESPIRATORY VOLUME AND CAPACITIES
➢ Instrument - Spirometer
➢ Significance - Clinical assessment of pulmonary
functions
➢ Residual volume cannot be measured by Spirometer.
Standard volumes Value in ml
1. Tidal volume/air inhaled or exhaled per TV - 500
breath.
2. Inspiratory reserve volume/forceful IRV - 2500-
inhalation 3000
3. Expiratory reserve volume/forceful ERV - 1000-
exhalation 1100
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4. Residual volume/air left in lungs after RV - 1100-
forceful exhalation. 1200
Standard capacities
IC = TV + IRV
VC = TV + IRV + ERV TLC = TV + IRV + ERV + RV
VC+ RV
FRC = ERV + RV
EC = TV + ERV
Minute volume: TV × respiratory rate i.e., 500 × 12 = 6000-8000
ml
TRANSPORT OF GASES
➢ Haemoglobin bin with oxygen
○ Comprises globin and haem.
○ Globin – Protein molecule
○ Haem – Prosthetic group
– Imparts red colour
○ Fe present in the centre of each Haem.
2+
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Oxygen Carbon dioxide
5 ml of O2 is delivered to the 4 ml of CO2 is delivered to
tissues by 100 ml of alveoli by 100 ml of
oxygenated blood deoxygenated blood
3% dissolved in plasma 7% dissolved in plasma
97% as oxyhaemoglobin 20-25% as carbamino Hb
Binding of O2 with Hb is Binding of CO2 with Hb is
primarily related to pO2 related to
pCO2 as well as pO2
• Each Hb molecule binds 4 oxygen molecules in a reversible
manner.
• Oxygen dissociation curve obtained is sigmoid.
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• Maximum (70%) 𝐶𝑂2 is transported as bicarbonates facilitated
by enzyme
carbonic anhydrase, which exists more in RBCs and minute
quantities in
plasma
Bohr effect:
○ The phenomenon of an increase in CO2 concentration resulting
in an increased dissociation of oxyheamoglobin.
○ O2 –Hb dissociation curve shift right ( ↑ ed dissociation of Hb
with O2 ) Chloride shift or Hamburger phenomenon:
○ When HCO− 3 ions from RBC move into plasma, it changes the
ionic balance between RBCs and plasma.
○ To restore the ionic balance, Cl− ions diffuse from plasma into
RBC
REGULATION OF RESPIRATION
➢ Humans have significant ability to maintain and
moderate the respiratory rhythm to suit the demands of
the body tissues.
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DISORDERS
Diseases Affected Area Characteristics
Asthma Inflammation of Wheezing sound
bronchi, bronchioles
Emphysema Alveolar wall damage in Respiratory surface
chronic cigarette area decreased
smokers
Occupational Lungs Fibrosis and lungs
respiratory damage
disorder
Workers should wear protective masks while working in
industries that are
involved in dust producing grinding and stone breaking.
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