BIOCHEMISTRY-114
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1.VENTILATION
2.GAS EXCHANGE
3.LUNG VOLUME
Presented By-
Badhan Rani Dey
Assistant Professor
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
Primeasia University
THE MANNER IN
WHICH AIR
ENTERS AND EXITS
THE LUNGS IS
CALLED
PULMONARY
VENTILATION
PULMONARY VENTILATION
• COMMONLY REFERRED TO AS BREATHING. IT IS THE PROCESS OF AIR
FLOWING INTO THE LUNGS DURING INSPIRATION (INHALATION) AND
OUT OF THE LUNGS DURING EXPIRATION (EXHALATION).
• AIR FLOWS BECAUSE OF PRESSURE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE
ATMOSPHERE AND THE GASES INSIDE THE LUNGS.
• ADULTS HAVE A BREATHING RATE OF 12 TO 20 VENTILATIONS PER
MINUTE.
VENTILATION
PULMONARY VENTILATION
• INSPIRATION
• ACTIVE PHASE OF VENTILATION
• THE DIAPHRAGM AND THE EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES CONTRACT.
• THE DOME-SHAPED DIAPHRAGM CONTRACTS AND LOWERS DURING DEEP
INSPIRATION.
• ALSO, THE EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES CONTRACT, AND THE RIB CAGE
MOVES UPWARD AND OUTWARD.
• CONTRACTION OF THE DIAPHRAGM AND THE EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL MUSCLE
CAUSES THE VOLUME OF THE THORACIC CAVITY WILL BE LARGER THAN IT WAS
BEFORE.
• AS THE THORACIC VOLUME INCREASES, THE LUNGS EXPAND.
• ALVEOLAR PRESSURE IS NOW LESS THAN ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE, AND AIR WILL
NATURALLY FLOW FROM OUTSIDE THE BODY INTO THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES.
PULMONARY VENTILATION
• EXPIRATION
• PASSIVE PHASE OF VENTILATION.
• THE DIAPHRAGM AND THE INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES RELAX DURING
EXPIRATION.
• THE DIAPHRAGM RESUMES ITS DOME SHAPE AND THE RIB CAGE MOVES
DOWN AND IN.
• AS THE VOLUME OF THE THORACIC CAVITY DECREASES, THE LUNGS ARE
FREE TO RECOIL.
• THE AIR PRESSURE WITHIN THE ALVEOLI INCREASES ABOVE ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE AND AIR WILL NATURALLY FLOW TO OUTSIDE THE BODY.
• THE PRESENCE OF SURFACTANT LOWERS THE SURFACE TENSION WITHIN
THE ALVEOLI PREVENT IT FROM COLLAPSING.
VENTILATION
CONTROL OF VENTILATION
• THE RHYTHM OF VENTILATION IS CONTROLLED BY A RESPIRATORY CENTER
LOCATED IN THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA OF THE BRAIN.
• THE RESPIRATORY CENTER AUTOMATICALLY SENDS OUT IMPULSES BY WAY
OF NERVES TO THE DIAPHRAGM AND THE EXTERNAL INTERCOSTAL
MUSCLES OF THE RIB CAGE.
• WHEN THE RESPIRATORY CENTER STOPS SENDING NEURONAL SIGNALS TO
THE DIAPHRAGM AND THE RIB CAGE, THE DIAPHRAGM RELAXES
RESUMING ITS DOME SHAPE AND THE RIB CAGE MOVES DOWN AND IN.
• THE RESPIRATORY CENTER ACTS RHYTHMICALLY TO BRING ABOUT
BREATHING AT A NORMAL RATE AND VOLUME.
• ALTHOUGH THE RESPIRATORY CENTER CONTROLS THE RATE AND DEPTH OF
BREATHING, ITS ACTIVITY CAN BE INFLUENCED BY NERVOUS INPUT AND
CHEMICAL INPUT.
CONTROL OF VENTILATION
• NERVOUS INPUT
• AN EXAMPLE OF NERVOUS CONTROL OF THE RESPIRATORY CENTER IS HERING-
BREUER REFLEX, NAMED FOR JOSEF BREUER AND EWALD HERING, IS
A REFLEX TRIGGERED TO PREVENT THE OVER-INFLATION OF THE LUNG..
• DURING EXERCISE, THE DEPTH OF INSPIRATION CAN INCREASE DUE TO
RECRUITMENT OF MUSCLE FIBERS IN THE DIAPHRAGM AND INTERCOSTAL
MUSCLES.
• THEN, STRETCH RECEPTORS IN THE ALVEOLAR WALLS ARE STIMULATED, AND
THEY INITIATE INHIBITORY NERVE IMPULSES THAT TRAVEL FROM THE INFLATED
LUNGS TO THE RESPIRATORY CENTER.
• THIS CAUSES THE RESPIRATORY CENTER TO STOP SENDING OUT NERVE
IMPULSES.
• THIS REFLEX HELPS SUPPORT RHYTHMIC RESPIRATORY MOVEMENTS BY LIMITING
THE EXTENT OF INSPIRATION.
CONTROL OF VENTILATION
• CHEMICAL INPUT
• THE RESPIRATORY CENTER IS DIRECTLY SENSITIVE TO THE LEVELS OF
CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2) AND HYDROGEN IONS (H).
• WHEN THEY RISE, DUE TO CELLULAR RESPIRATION, THE RESPIRATORY
CENTER INCREASES THE RATE AND DEPTH OF BREATHING.
• THE CENTER IS NOT AFFECTED DIRECTLY BY LOW OXYGEN (O2) LEVELS.
• CHEMORECEPTORS IN THE CAROTID BODIES, LOCATED IN THE CAROTID
ARTERIES, AND IN THE AORTIC BODIES, LOCATED IN THE AORTA, ARE
SENSITIVE TO THE LEVEL OF OXYGEN IN THE BLOOD. WHEN THE
CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN DECREASES, THESE BODIES COMMUNICATE
WITH THE RESPIRATORY CENTER, AND THE RATE AND DEPTH OF
BREATHING INCREASE.
GAS EXCHANGE
• OXYGEN TRANSPORT
• AFTER O2 ENTERS THE BLOOD IN THE LUNGS, IT ENTERS RED BLOOD
CELLS AND COMBINES WITH THE IRON PORTION OF HEMOGLOBIN.
• THE HIGHER CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN IN THE ALVEOLI, PLUS THE
SLIGHTLY HIGHER PH AND SLIGHTLY COOLER TEMPERATURE, CAUSES
HEMOGLOBIN TO TAKE UP OXYGEN AND BECOME OXYHEMOGLOBIN
(HBO2).
• THE LOWER CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN IN THE TISSUES, PLUS THE
SLIGHTLY LOWER PH AND SLIGHTLY WARMER TEMPERATURE IN THE
TISSUES, CAUSES HEMOGLOBIN TO RELEASE OXYGEN AND BECOME
DEOXYHEMOGLOBIN (HB).
GAS TRANSPORT
• CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT
• AT THE TISSUES AFTER CO2 DIFFUSES INTO THE BLOOD, IT ENTERS THE RED
BLOOD CELLS, WHERE A SMALL AMOUNT IS TAKEN UP BY HEMOGLOBIN,
FORMING CARBAMINOHEMOGLOBIN.
• MOREOVER, MOST OF THE CO2 COMBINES WITH WATER, FORMING
CARBONIC ACID (H2CO3).
• THE CARBONIC ACID DISSOCIATES TO HYDROGEN IONS (H) AND
BICARBONATE IONS (HCO3 ). THE RELEASE OF THESE HYDROGEN IONS
EXPLAINS WHY THE BLOOD IN SYSTEMIC CAPILLARIES HAS A LOWER PH
THAN THE BLOOD IN PULMONARY CAPILLARIES.
• THE DIFFERENCE IN PH IS SLIGHT BECAUSE THE GLOBIN PORTION OF
HEMOGLOBIN COMBINES WITH EXCESS HYDROGEN IONS AND BECOMES
REDUCED HEMOGLOBIN (HHB).
GAS TRANSPORT
• BICARBONATE IONS ARE CARRIED IN THE PLASMA BECAUSE THEY
DIFFUSE OUT OF RED BLOOD CELLS AND GO INTO THE PLASMA.
MOST OF THE CARBON DIOXIDE IN BLOOD IS CARRIED AS THE
BICARBONATE ION. AS BICARBONATE IONS DIFFUSE OUT OF RED
BLOOD CELLS, CHLORIDE IONS (CL) DIFFUSE INTO THEM. THIS SO-
CALLED CHLORIDE SHIFT MAINTAINS THE ELECTRICAL BALANCE
BETWEEN THE PLASMA AND THE RED BLOOD CELLS.
• IN PULMONARY CAPILLARIES, A REVERSE REACTION OCCURS.
BICARBONATE COMBINES WITH HYDROGEN IONS TO FORM
CARBONIC ACID, WHICH THIS TIME SPLITS INTO CO2 AND H2O, AND
THE CO2 DIFFUSES OUT OF THE BLOOD INTO THE ALVEOLI.
GAS TRANSPORT
LUNG VOLUMES
• LUNG CAN BE DIVIDED INTO FOUR UNITS: TIDAL VOLUME, EXPIRATORY
RESERVE VOLUME, INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME, AND RESIDUAL
VOLUME.
• TIDAL VOLUME (TV) MEASURES THE AMOUNT OF AIR THAT IS INSPIRED
AND EXPIRED DURING A NORMAL BREATH.
• THE EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (ERV) IS THE ADDITIONAL AMOUNT OF
AIR THAT CAN BE EXHALED AFTER A NORMAL EXHALATION. IT IS THE
RESERVE AMOUNT THAT CAN BE EXHALED BEYOND WHAT IS NORMAL.
• CONVERSELY, THE INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (IRV) IS THE ADDITIONAL
AMOUNT OF AIR THAT CAN BE INHALED AFTER A NORMAL INHALATION.
• THE RESIDUAL VOLUME (RV) IS THE AMOUNT OF AIR THAT IS LEFT AFTER
EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME IS EXHALED.
LUNG VOLUMES
• THE LUNGS ARE NEVER COMPLETELY EMPTY; THERE IS ALWAYS SOME
AIR LEFT IN THE LUNGS AFTER A MAXIMAL EXHALATION. IF THIS
RESIDUAL VOLUME DID NOT EXIST AND THE LUNGS EMPTIED
COMPLETELY, THE LUNG TISSUES WOULD STICK TOGETHER. THE
ENERGY NECESSARY TO RE-INFLATE THE LUNG COULD BE TOO GREAT
TO OVERCOME. THEREFORE, THERE IS ALWAYS SOME AIR REMAINING
IN THE LUNGS. RESIDUAL VOLUME IS ALSO IMPORTANT FOR
PREVENTING LARGE FLUCTUATIONS IN RESPIRATORY GASES (O2 AND
CO2). THE RESIDUAL VOLUME IS THE ONLY LUNG VOLUME THAT
CANNOT BE MEASURED DIRECTLY BECAUSE IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO
COMPLETELY EMPTY THE LUNG OF AIR. THIS VOLUME CAN ONLY BE
CALCULATED RATHER THAN MEASURED.
