2

Surveying

2.1 Land Surveying

Land surveying is the process of determining the size, shape, and location of land. It is
a vital tool for a variety of purposes, including:

• Property ownership: Land surveys can be used to establish property boundaries

and ensure that everyone knows where their property ends and another’s begins.
This is important for preventing disputes and ensuring that property taxes are
paid correctly.

• Construction: Land surveys are essential for the planning and construction of new
buildings, roads, and other infrastructure. They help to ensure that these structures
are built in the correct location and that they do not encroach on neighboring
properties.

• Environmental Protection: Land surveys can be used to identify potential environ-

mental hazards, such as contaminated soil or wetlands. This information can be
used to protect public health and the environment.

• Natural Resource Management: Land surveys can be used to map and monitor
natural resources, such as forests, water resources, and mineral deposits. This
information can be used to manage these resources sustainably.
2 Surveying

Figure 2.1: Land surveying

Figure 2.2: Land surveying

• Cadastral mapping: Cadastral mapping is the process of creating a map of land

ownership. This information is used by governments to track property ownership
and collect taxes.

• Historic preservation: Land surveys can be used to document historic sites and
landmarks. This information can be used to protect these sites from development
and preserve their historical significance.

In short, land surveying is a critical tool for ensuring the safe and efficient use of land.
It is used in a wide variety of applications, from property ownership to construction to
environmental protection.
2.2 Main Objectives of Surveying 3

2.1.1 Benefits of Land Surveying:

1. Prevents property disputes: A land survey can help to prevent property disputes
by clearly defining property boundaries. This is especially important when buying
or selling land, or when making changes to a property.

2. Ensures accurate construction: A land survey can help to ensure that construc-
tion projects are built in the correct location and that they do not encroach on
neighboring properties. This can help to avoid costly lawsuits and repairs.

3. Protects the environment: Land surveys can help to identify potential environ-
mental hazards, such as contaminated soil or wetlands. This information can be
used to protect public health and the environment.

4. Manages natural resources: Land surveys can be used to map and monitor natural
resources, such as forests, water resources, and mineral deposits. This information
can be used to manage these resources sustainably.

5. Provides valuable data: Land surveys can provide valuable data about the land,
such as its size, shape, topography, and soil conditions. This information can be
used for a variety of purposes, such as planning development projects, assessing
property values, and managing natural resources.

Overall, land surveying is a valuable tool that can be used to protect property rights,
ensure safe construction, and manage natural resources. It is an essential part of many
different industries, including real estate, construction, engineering, and environmental
protection.

2.2 Main Objectives of Surveying

The object of surveying is to determine the relative positions of points on the earth’s sur-
face and to prepare maps, plans, and other representations of those positions. Surveying
is used in a wide variety of applications, including

• Construction: Surveying is used to plan and design construction projects, such

as roads, bridges, buildings, and dams. It is also used to monitor the progress of
construction and to ensure that it complies with the design plans.
 4 Surveying

• Engineering: Surveying is used to design and build a variety of engineering

projects, including water supply and wastewater systems, irrigation systems, and
transportation networks.

• Mapping: Surveying is used to create maps of all kinds, from topographic maps
to nautical charts to cadastral maps (which show the boundaries of land parcels).

• Mining: Surveying is used to explore for and develop mineral resources.

• Geology: Surveying is used to study the structure and composition of the earth’s
crust.

• Archaeology: Surveying is used to locate and map archaeological sites.

• Determine the relative position of any objects or points on the earth.

• Determine the distance and angles between various objects.

• Prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a horizontal plane.

• Develop methods through the knowledge of modern science and the technology
and use them in the field.

• Solve measurement problems in an optimal way.

• Surveying is a broad field with many different applications.

• To establish property boundaries.

• To design and construct roads, bridges, and buildings.

• To lay out pipelines and other utilities.

• To map the earth’s surface.

• To study the environment.

• To conduct archaeological research.

• To plan and execute military operations.

Surveying is a critical part of many different projects and activities. It is a complex and
challenging field, but it is also a rewarding one. Surveyors play an important role in
making the world a better place.
2.2 Main Objectives of Surveying 5

2.2.1 Applications of Surveying

Here are some specific examples of how the objectives of surveying are used in different
applications:

1. To establish property boundaries, surveyors use a variety of methods to determine

the exact location of property lines. This information is then used to create legal
documents that define the ownership of the property.

2. To design and construct roads, bridges, and buildings, surveyors first need to
determine the exact location of the project. They also need to measure the elevation
of the land so that the structures can be built level.

3. To lay out pipelines and other utilities, surveyors need to determine the exact
route of the lines. They also need to measure the depth of the lines so that they
can be buried safely.

4. To map the earth’s surface, surveyors use a variety of methods to create accurate
representations of the land. This information is used for a variety of purposes,
such as planning development projects and managing natural resources.

5. To study the environment, surveyors use their skills to collect data about the
natural world. This information is used to understand the impact of human
activity on the environment and to develop plans for conservation and restoration.

6. To conduct archaeological research, surveyors use their skills to locate and map ar-
chaeological sites. This information is used to preserve and study these important
historical sites.

7. To plan and execute military operations, surveyors use their skills to map the
battlefield and to determine the location of enemy forces. This information is
used to develop strategies and tactics for the safe and effective conduct of military
operations.

These are just a few examples of how the objectives of surveying are used in different
applications. Surveying is a versatile field with a wide range of applications. It is a
critical part of many different projects and activities, and it is a rewarding career for
those who are interested in the field.
6 Surveying

2.3 Horizontal Measurements

In surveying, the horizontal distance between two points is the distance between their
projections on a horizontal plane. This is regardless of the relative elevation of the two
points. Horizontal measurements are used in a variety of surveying applications, such
as:

• Establishing property boundaries: Horizontal measurements are used to establish

the boundaries of land parcels. This is done by measuring the distance between
two points on the ground, such as the corners of a property.

• Planning construction projects: Horizontal measurements are used to plan the

layout of construction projects. This includes measuring the distance between
buildings, roads, and other structures.

• Mapping: Horizontal measurements are used to create maps of land areas. This
includes measuring the distance between features on the ground, such as rivers,
lakes, and mountains.

• Engineering: Horizontal measurements are used in engineering projects, such as

the design of bridges and dams. This includes measuring the distance between
supports and the depth of foundations. There are a number of different methods

Figure 2.3: Horizontal measurement

for measuring horizontal distances, including:

2.3 Horizontal Measurements 7

1. Direct measurement: This is the most basic method of measuring horizontal

distances. It involves using a tape measure or other measuring device to
measure the distance between two points.

2. Triangulation: This method uses the principles of trigonometry to measure

horizontal distances. It involves measuring the angles between three or more
points, and then using these measurements to calculate the distances between
the points.

3. EDM: Electronic distance measurement (EDM) devices use electromagnetic

waves to measure horizontal distances. These devices are very accurate and
can be used to measure distances over long distances.

The choice of method for measuring horizontal distances depends on the accuracy
requirements of the survey and the available resources.

2.3.1 Measurement by Chaining

Chaining is the most common direct method of distance measurement. It involves using
a chain, which is a length of steel or cloth that is graduated in feet or meters. The chain
is held straight between the two points being measured, and the number of links in the
chain is counted.

1. It is suitable when the ground is fairly level and open with simple details.

2. When large scale plans are needed, this type is suitable.

3. It is suitable when the area to be surveyed is comparatively small in extent.

4. It is suitable for ordinary works as its length alters due to continued use.

5. Sagging of chain due to its heavy weight reduces the accuracy of measurements.

6. It can be read easily and repaired in the field itself.

7. It is suitable for rough usage.

8 Surveying

Figure 2.4: Metric Chain

2.3.2 Measurement by taping

Taping is similar to chaining, but it uses a steel or cloth tape instead of a chain. Tapes
are typically more accurate than chains, but they can be more difficult to use in uneven
terrain.
The steps involved in measuring horizontal distances using a tape measure:

1. Stretch the tape measure taut between the two points to be measured.

2. Make sure that the tape measure is level.

3. Read the measurement on the tape measure.

2.3.3 Triangulation

Triangulation is the most common indirect method of distance measurement. It involves

measuring the angles between two known points and the point whose distance is being
measured. Once the angles have been measured, the distance can be calculated using
trigonometry.
The steps involved in measuring horizontal distances using triangulation are:

1. Select three points that are well-defined and visible from each other.
2.4 Angular Measurement 9

2. Measure the angles between the three points.

3. Use trigonometry to calculate the distances between the points.

2.3.4 Using EDM

Steps involved in measuring horizontal distances using EDM are:

1. Set up the EDM device at one point.

2. Aim the EDM device at the other point.

3. Press the trigger to measure the distance.

• The accuracy of horizontal measurements depends on a number of factors, includ-

ing the method used, the skill of the surveyor, and the environmental conditions.

• The accuracy of direct measurements can be improved by using a long tape

measure and by taking multiple measurements.

• The accuracy of triangulation measurements can be improved by using well-

defined points and by measuring the angles carefully.

• The accuracy of EDM measurements is typically very high.

• Horizontal measurements are an essential part of surveying.

• They are used in a variety of applications, and the accuracy of these measurements
is critical to the success of the survey.

2.4 Angular Measurement

Angular measurements are an essential part of surveying. They are used to determine
the direction of lines, the slope of surfaces, and the elevation of points. Angular
measurements are made with a variety of instruments, including theodolites, transits,
and compasses.
The most common angular measurement unit in surveying is the degree. A degree
is divided into 60 minutes, and a minute is divided into 60 seconds. Angular measure-
ments can also be made in radians, where a full circle is equal to 2 π radians. There are
10 Surveying

Figure 2.5: Angular measurement

two main types of angular measurements in surveying: horizontal angles and vertical
angles. Horizontal angles are the angles between two lines that are in the same plane.
Vertical angles are the angles between a line and the horizontal plane.
Horizontal angles are used to determine the direction of lines and to calculate the
area of a land parcel. Vertical angles are used to determine the elevation of points and
to calculate the slope of surfaces.
Angular measurements are an essential part of many surveying tasks, including:

1. Establishing property boundaries

2. Planning and construction of roads, buildings, and other infrastructure

3. Mapping and surveying natural resources

4. Environmental impact assessment

5. Engineering design Cadastral mapping

Angular measurements are also used in a variety of other fields, such as astronomy,
navigation, and engineering.
Here are some of the common angular measurements used in surveying:

1. Horizontal angle: The angle between two lines in the same plane.

2. Vertical angle: The angle between a line and the horizontal plane.
2.4 Angular Measurement 11

3. Azimuth: The horizontal angle between a line and north.

4. Declination: The vertical angle between a line and the zenith.

5. Incline: The angle between a line and the horizontal plane.

6. Slope: The ratio of the rise to the run of a line.

The accuracy of angular measurements is important in surveying. The accuracy of

the measurements depends on the instrument used, the skill of the surveyor, and the
environmental conditions.
There are a number of factors that can affect the accuracy of angular measurements,
including:

1. Instrument errors: Theodolites and other surveying instruments can have errors
due to manufacturing defects, wear and tear, and environmental conditions.

2. Human errors: Surveyors can make errors when reading the instrument, setting
up the instrument, or recording the measurements.

3. Environmental conditions: Environmental conditions, such as wind and tempera-

ture, can affect the accuracy of angular measurements.

To ensure the accuracy of angular measurements, surveyors should use high-quality

instruments, be properly trained, and take steps to minimize the effects of environmental
conditions.

2.4.1 Instruments used in angular measurement

The most common instrument used to measure angles in land surveying is the theodolite.
Theodolites are precision instruments that can measure angles to within a few seconds
of arc. They are typically used to measure horizontal angles, but can also be used to
measure vertical angles.
Other instruments that can be used to measure angles in land surveying include:

1. Total stations: Total stations are integrated surveying instruments that combine
theodolite, distance meter, and electronic data collector functionality in a single
unit. GPS receivers: GPS receivers can be used to measure angles to satellites,
12 Surveying

which can then be used to calculate the position of the receiver on the ground.
Compasses: Compasses can be used to measure magnetic bearings, which can be
useful for preliminary surveys or for orienting maps.

The type of instrument used to measure angles in a particular survey will depend on
the accuracy required and the specific surveying task being performed.
Types of angular measurements in land surveying
There are two main types of angular measurements in land surveying: horizontal
angles and vertical angles.

1. Horizontal angles are measured in the horizontal plane and are used to determine
the direction of survey lines. Horizontal angles are typically measured between
two points on the ground, but can also be measured between a point on the ground
and a celestial object, such as the sun or a star.

2. Vertical angles are measured in the vertical plane and are used to determine the
elevation of survey points relative to a known datum. Vertical angles are typically
measured between a point on the ground and a point on a vertical benchmark.
Applications of angular measurements in land surveying

Angular measurements are used in a wide variety of land surveying applications,

including:

1. Traversing: Traversing is a surveying method used to establish a network of survey

points by measuring horizontal and vertical angles between successive points.
Traverses are used to create base maps and to control other types of surveys.

2. Topographic surveying: Topographic surveying is the process of mapping the

physical features of a land area, such as the contours, elevations, and land cover
types. Angular measurements are used to determine the positions of these features
relative to a known coordinate system. Construction surveying: Construction
surveying is the process of setting out and monitoring construction projects.

Angular measurements are used to lay out the foundations and other structural
elements of buildings and other structures.
2.5 Bearings in Surveying 13

2.5 Bearings in Surveying

A bearing in surveying is an angle measured clockwise or counterclockwise from a
reference meridian to a line. The reference meridian is usually true north, but it can also
be magnetic north or grid north. The bearing is expressed in degrees, and it can be any
angle between 0 and 360 degrees.
For example, a bearing of N00E means that the line is pointing directly north. A
bearing of N090E means that the line is pointing 90 degrees east of north. A bearing of
S090W means that the line is pointing 90 degrees west of south.
Bearings are used in surveying to describe the direction of lines and features on the
ground. They are also used to calculate distances and areas.
There are three main types of bearings in surveying:

1. True bearings: True bearings are measured from true north. They are the most
accurate type of bearing, but they are also the most difficult to measure.

2. Magnetic bearings: Magnetic bearings are measured from magnetic north. Mag-
netic north is not the same as true north, so magnetic bearings will be slightly
different from true bearings.

3. Grid bearings: Grid bearings are measured from grid north. Grid north is an
imaginary line that is used as a reference for maps and surveys. Grid bearings are
the most commonly used type of bearing in surveying.

When using bearings in surveying, it is important to be aware of the type of bearing that
you are using. This is because the difference between true bearings, magnetic bearings,
and grid bearings can be significant.
Here are some of the uses of bearings in surveying:

1. To describe the direction of a line or feature on the ground

2. To calculate distances and areas

3. To establish property boundaries

4. To plan and construct buildings, roads, and other infrastructure

5. To identify potential environmental hazards

14 Surveying

6. To manage natural resources Bearings are an essential tool for surveyors and are
used in a wide variety of applications. By understanding how bearings work,
surveyors can accurately measure and describe the features of the land.

2.6 Levelling Instruments

Here are some of the most common levelling instruments used in surveying:

1. Dumpy level: This is the most common type of levelling instrument. It is a simple
and robust instrument that is easy to use. The dumpy level consists of a telescope,
a level tube, and a tripod. The telescope is used to sight the levelling staff, and the
level tube is used to make sure that the telescope is level.

Figure 2.6: Dumpy level 2D sketch

2. Tilting level: The tilting level is similar to the dumpy level, but it has a tilting
mechanism that allows the telescope to be tilted up and down. This makes it
easier to level the telescope in uneven terrain.

3. Automatic level: The automatic level is a more sophisticated instrument that uses
a pendulum to automatically keep the telescope level. This makes it easier to use
the automatic level in windy conditions.
2.6 Levelling Instruments 15

Figure 2.7: Dumpy level testing instrument

Figure 2.8: Tilting level surveying instrument

4. Water level: The water level is a simple instrument that uses a tube of water to
transfer the level of water from one point to another. This can be used to level a
surface or to measure the difference in elevation between two points.

Digital level: The digital level is a relatively new instrument that uses electronic
sensors to measure the level of the telescope. This makes it the most accurate type
of levelling instrument.
16 Surveying

Figure 2.9: Automatic level surveying instrument

Figure 2.10: Water level testing instrument

The choice of levelling instrument will depend on the specific application. For
example, a dumpy level is a good choice for general levelling work, while an automatic
level is a better choice for leveling in windy conditions.

In addition to these instruments, there are also a variety of accessories that can be
used with levelling instruments, such as levelling staffs, targets, and tripods.
2.7 Contour mapping 17

2.7 Contour mapping

Contour mapping is a method of depicting the topography of an area by drawing lines

that connect points of equal elevation. Contour lines are imaginary lines that trace the
intersection of the ground surface with a level plane. The vertical distance between
successive contour lines is called the contour interval.
Contour maps are a valuable tool for understanding the three-dimensional shape
of the land. They can be used to identify hills, valleys, ridges, and other topographic
features. Contour maps are also used to plan engineering projects, such as roads,
railroads, and dams. The closer the contour lines, the steeper the slope. The farther
apart the contour lines, the more gradual the slope.
Contour mapping is used in a variety of applications, including:

• Civil engineering: Contour maps are used to plan and design roads, bridges, and
other infrastructure.

• Land surveying: Contour maps are used to establish property boundaries and to
identify potential hazards.

• Environmental science: Contour maps are used to study the land’s topography
and to assess the impact of development on the environment.

• Agriculture: Contour maps are used to plan crop rotation and to prevent soil
erosion.

• Recreation: Contour maps are used to plan hiking trails and other outdoor activi-
ties.

To create a contour map, surveyors first establish a series of benchmarks, which are
points of known elevation. They then use a levelling instrument to measure the elevation
of other points on the land relative to the benchmarks. The surveyors then connect the
points of equal elevation with contour lines.
The spacing of the contour lines depends on the scale of the map and the degree of
detail required. For example, a map with a large scale will have more closely spaced
contour lines than a map with a small scale.
18 Surveying

Contour maps can be created manually or using computer software. Manually

created contour maps are typically more accurate, but they can be time-consuming to
create. Computer-generated contour maps are less accurate, but they can be created
much more quickly.
Contour maps are a valuable tool for understanding the topography of the land.
They can be used to plan and design projects, to assess the impact of development on
the environment, and to enjoy the outdoors.
Here are some of the benefits of using contour mapping in surveying:

• It provides a clear and concise representation of the land’s topography.

• It can be used to identify potential hazards, such as steep slopes and unstable
ground.

• It can be used to plan and design projects, such as roads, bridges, and pipelines.

• It can be used to assess the impact of development on the environment.

• It can be used to manage natural resources, such as water and forests.

Overall, contour mapping is a valuable tool that can be used to improve the safety,
efficiency, and sustainability of land development projects.

Figure 2.11: Deriving contour maps from landscape

2.7 Contour mapping 19

2.7.1 Applications of contour mapping

Contour maps are used in a variety of applications, including:

1. Civil Engineering: Contour maps are used in civil engineering projects for plan-
ning roads, bridges, and other infrastructure.

2. Construction: Contour maps are used by construction companies to estimate the

amount of earthwork that needs to be done for a project.

3. Recreation: Contour maps are used by hikers, backpackers, and other outdoor
enthusiasts to plan their trips and navigate in the wilderness.

4. Topographic Maps: Contour maps are commonly used to create topographic maps,
which show the elevation and terrain features of an area.

5. Geology: Contour maps are used in geology to study the shape and structure of
land forms.

6. Environmental Science: Contour maps are used in environmental science to assess

erosion, flooding, and other environmental hazards.

2.7.2 How to read a contour map

To read a contour map, you need to understand the following basic principles:

1. Contour lines always close on themselves.

2. Contour lines never cross. The closer together the contour lines, the steeper the
slope. The wider apart the contour lines, the gentler the slope.

3. Closed contour lines with lower elevation values in the center represent depres-
sions, such as lakes or valleys.

4. Closed contour lines with higher elevation values in the center represent hills or
mountains.