BUILDING ENGINEERING

SURVEYING

8M MAY 2018
BUILDING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING.
 SURVEYING

BASIC CONCEPT OF SURVEYING

Surveying may be defined as the science of determining the position, in three dimensions, of
natural and man-made features on or beneath the surface of the earth.

Surveying is the technique and science of accurately determining the terrestrial position of
points and the distances and angles between them.

Surveying is indispensable to the engineer when planning, designing and constructing a

project, so all engineers should have a thorough understanding of the limits of accuracy
possible in the construction and manufacturing processes.

The surveyor must consider many factors in the conduct of his work. These include:

1. He must be technically proficient and familiar with modern surveying Instruments

and methods.
2. He must understand the tolerances permitted.
3. He must understand the accuracies required.
4. He must appreciate the interrelationship between the surveys and other aspects of
the overall work.
5. He must have the following personal attributes in the execution of survey work
and survey computations to properly support the efficient planning, design and
construction of projects:
a) Careful Thought
b) Sound professional judgment
c) Skilled and knowledgeable
d) Experienced
e) Scrupulously polished

Engineering surveying plays an important role in many branches of engineering. For

example, surveys are required to plan, construct and maintain roads, railways, buildings,
bridges, tunnels, canals, irrigation ditches, dams, drainage works, Urban Land Subdivision,
water supply and Sewerage systems, pipelines and mine shafts.

Purpose and Importance of Surveying

Surveying is used to establish the following:

1) Map of the Earth above and below the sea level.

2) Prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land and at sea.
3) Establish property boundaries of private and public lands.
4) Prepare Land Use Plans and natural resources maps.
5) Planning engineering works.
6) Computations of areas and volumes.
7) Setting out and locating positions of points on ground surface.

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CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS:

Surveying can be classified based on:

 Size of the earth surface covered

 Purpose or use of the survey

 The surveying Techniques/Equipment Used.

a) Based on the size of the earth surface covered:

i) Geodetic Surveying- Determines the precise positions on the surface of the earth
of a system of widely distant points. Large areas of the earth’s surface are
involved and the curvature of the earth must be taken into consideration.
ii) Plane Surveying- Plane survey is used for location and construction of physical
features. The curvature of the earth is not accounted for. The earth’s surface is
considered as a plane. Relatively small areas are under consideration, normally
less than 250 km².
b) Based on the purpose or use of the survey:

i) Reconnaissance survey- is the first and most important step in the surveying
process. Only after a careful and detailed reconnaissance of the area can the
surveyor decide upon the techniques and instrumentation required to complete the
work economically and meet the accuracy specifications.
Reconnaissance survey is a preliminary examination of the natural resources of a
country (forests, hills, valleys, planes, savannah, cultivated areas, rivers, building,
roads and other infrastructural structures).
(Reconnaissance means Inspection, exploration or investigation).
ii) Topographical Surveys- A Topographical Map is a large-scale representation of
a portion of the earth’s surface, showing both natural features (such as mountains,
rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, forests, deserts), artificial features (such as towns,
villages, roads, railways, canals, buildings, bridges, and boundary lines) and
elevations used in map making.
iii) Engineering Survey- This includes all the survey works required before, during
and after any engineering construction project. e.g.
a. Route survey made to plan, design and construct roads, water pipe & sewer
lines and other linear projects.
b. Construction survey is run while construction is in progress, to control
elevations, horizontal positions, dimensions and configurations.
iv) Cadastral Survey- These are undertaken to produce plans of property boundaries
for legal purposes. They define and record the boundaries of properties, legislative
areas and even countries – provinces, districts, locations and villages. They are
surveys of the Public Lands System.
v) Agricultural Survey- They are used for establishing and preparing maps of
properties, computing field and farm areas, prepare land use maps or plans of an
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area or catchments and laying out soil and water conservation structures and other
farm physicals.
Uses of surveying
 To establish boundaries, roads or paths, trees in the farm.
 Establish the location, size and plans of a building.
 Locate construction site for Dams, Ponds, canals, culverts, watering troughs,
cut off drains, fences, waterways, wetlands and terraces.
 Establish the location of water supply and Drainage systems (pipe systems,
boreholes, wells, dams, rivers, springs, drainage systems, sewer lines,
manholes and septic tanks
 They are used for establishing and preparing maps of properties, computing
field and farm areas and laying out soil and water conservation structures
and other farm physicals.
 Laying out contour lines for strip cropping, contour farming and level
terraces.
vi) Hydrographic survey- Carried out to determine the size and shape of lakes rives,
harbor bottoms etc. Also gather information in the marine environment to produce
navigational map.

c) Based on surveying Techniques or Equipment Used:

a) Chain Surveying
b) Traverse Surveying
c) Triangulation Surveying
d) Plane Table Surveying
e) Aerial Surveying
f) Compass surveying
g) Tachometric Surveying is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical
distances are determined by angular observations with optical instruments like
levels theodolites and by Total Station.
h) Photogrammetry survey is the technique of making surveys or maps from
photographs

d) Others:

a) Military survey – for defense purposes.

b) Location survey.
c) Geological survey.
d) Exploratory survey.

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BASIC ERROR THEORY

Error is the deviation from accuracy, exactness or correctness of a measurement. It is the

difference between the observed value and true or actual value of the measured quantity. No
measurement in survey is ever exact, and every measurement whether linear or angular will
contain some form of error.

Sources of Errors

1. Instrumental Errors:
 Are due to imperfections in the instrument during manufacture [faults].
 Or due to improper adjustment between different parts of the instrument.
 e.g. Incorrect length of a steel tape.
 Improper adjustment of plate bubble level of Transit.
2. Personal Errors
 Arise from the fallibility of the senses of sight and touch.
 Due to incorrect judgment one may have a problem with eyesight thus a problem
in reading. One may be unable to correctly estimate values.
 e.g. Reading the graduation on a graduated circle.
 Fixing the line of sight of a Level or Transit on a given object.

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3. Natural errors:
These are due to phenomena of nature which one has little control over. They may be
caused by the following natural factors:
 Changes in temperature.
 Differential refraction of atmosphere.
 Wind velocity.
 High humidity.
 Magnetic declination.
 Gravitational pull.
 Curvature of the earth.

Types of Errors

1. Mistakes or Gross Errors- Mistakes are gross errors which arise from carelessness,
incompetence, inattention, inexperience (lack of skill and knowledge), and poor judgment
due to poor eyesight or confusion in the mind of the observer. If a mistake is undetected it
produces a serious effect upon the final result. Always double check readings and recorded
data.

Sources of mistakes:

 Misplacement of arrows or station marks.

 Miscounting tape lengths
 Misreading the tape
 Wrong booking

2. Systematic Errors- Are those errors that will always occur in the same instrument or
operation. Under the same field conditions, they will always be of the same
magnitude and sign [+ve errors or –ve errors].
 They are of cumulative nature – increase in magnitude as more measurements are
taken.
 They follow a well-defined mathematical or physical law hence can be calculated
and their effect eliminated from the measured field data.
 e.g. If a normal chain [20m] has been stretched by 50mm every time the chain is
laid down, there will be an error in the distance measured of 50mm. When the
chain has been laid down 5 times the length noted in the field notebook will be
100m but the true distance measured will be 100.250m. i.e. the error will have
accumulated 5x50mm = 0.250m.

3. Accidental Errors or Random or Compensating

These are random errors or compensating errors caused by a combination of reasons
beyond the ability of the observer to control.
They are random in nature.
They are small in magnitude.

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They change both in sign and magnitude with changes in field conditions (change in
temperature affect length of tape).

Sources of Accidental Errors

a) Imperfection of instruments
b) Human limitations – inability of the person to make exact reading of the scale.
c) Changes in atmospheric conditions – Uncontrollable changeability of the natural
environment, such as weather conditions.

Precision, Accuracy, And Reliability or Uncertainty

Precision- this refers to the care and refinement with which any physical measurement is
made. If a sack of feed weighed on a scale measuring to the nearest 0.1kg, it is not as precise
as it would be if the smallest unit of measure was to the nearest 0.01kg.

Accuracy- This refers to the difference between the final measured value of a quantity and its
absolute or true value of a number. A measure of 2.15 m is more accurate than a
measurement of 30.8m

Uncertainty- of a number is the amount it is expected to vary. If the uncertainty is not stated
after the number say 14.5 + 0.01. Then you may assume it is half of the smallest unit.

Error – This is a deviation from correctness or accuracy of a measurement.

Mistake – this is an error caused by lack of skill, attention, knowledge etc.

LINEAR DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Linear distance: its principle is based on straight lines/courses and their measurements on
the surface of the land etc.
Methods: Direct linear measurements can be obtained or estimated through a number of
methods. These are categorized into four broad techniques such as:
i. Direct Distance Measurement (DDM)
ii. Optical Distance Measurement (ODM)
iii. Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)
iv. Global positioning system (GPS)

Direct Distance Measurement (DD)

This involves measurement of linear distance using a measuring equipment, device or means
that is in direct contact with the surface being measured. This involves taping/chaining,
pacing, odometer readings
1) Pacing: this is a process of counting the number of paces between two stations within
a straight line/course. This is followed by establishing individuals Pace Factor (PF).
Pace factor is the average length or distance of one pace. In other words, it is the

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ration of actual horizontal distance between two stations and the number of paces
made.
2) Passometer: is a device with a shape similar to a watch and is carried or attached to a
pocket or leg. As the surveyor walks from one point to the other, it registers the
number of paces which can then be converted into distance by multiplication with P.F
3) Pedometer: Similar to passometer but is adjusted to the PF of the surveyor carrying it
so that it registers total distance by walking from one point to the other.
4) Odometer/speedometer: odometer registers the number of revolutions of a wheel.
The speedometer works on the same principle. The number of revolutions made are
then multiplied by the circumference to get distance covered.
5) Taping/chaining: direct measurement of distance using a tape/chain. Various types
of tapes are in use today such as cloth or linen tape, steel, invar, fiber glass, metallic
etc.

Taping/chaining
Taping/chaining refers to the exercise of physically measuring horizontal distances.

Equipment/ Instruments used in taping/chaining

a) A Tape/chain: Steel tapes are manufactured under fixed conditions of
temperature and tensile force.
b) Tension meter/ Tension handle: Tension handles allow the user to apply a
specified tensile force on the tape.
c) Tape grips: These allow the user to firmly grasp the steel tape and resist the
pull of the tape from the person located on the other end of the tape.

d) Plumb bobs: These are used to locate the tape precisely over a specified point.
e) Chaining pins: These are used to mark tape lengths.
f) Range pins/arrows: for precise marking of the stations on a line/course
g) Pegs; for marking the stations on a line
h) Ranging rods: for rough marking of the stations on a line/course and ranging
exercise
Types of Chains: Metric chain, Gunter/surveyors’ chain, Engineers chain, steel band/band
chain

Ranging out a survey line

When measuring linear distances using a tape/chain it should be stretched straight between
the two terminal stations. In case the distance being measured is less than the tape/chain then
direct distance measurement is easy. However, in case the distance exceeds the tape/chain
length, then intermediate stations/points need to be established between the end points.

Ranging out: is the process of establishing and marking the intermediate stations between
two end stations to aid in straight and direct distance measurement.
There are two main methods of ranging. These include
a) Direct ranging

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b) Indirect ranging

Direct ranging
Done when two terminal ends are inter-visible in such a case ranging is done by eye or
optical instrument (as a line ranger or, dumpy level, transit, theodolite).

A P B

Direct ranging

One survey line is erected at point B while a surveyor stands with another at A holding it at
approximately half a meter length. An assistant moves another ranging rod from A to another
point P which is at a distance less than a full chain/tape being used. Point P is marked with
the aid of guidance from the surveyor by observation and signaling the assistant such that the
three rods appear to be in line.

Indirect ranging
Taping on Level Ground: Taping on level ground is performed in the following six steps
i. Lining in
ii. Applying tension
iii. Plumbing
iv. Marking Tape Lengths
v. Reading the Tape
vi. Recording the Distance

Lining in
- Using range poles, the line to be measured should be marked at both ends, and at
intermediate points where necessary, to ensure unobstructed sight lines.
 Taping requires a minimum of two people, a forward tapeperson and a rear
tapeperson.
 Forward tapeperson is lined in by the rear tapeperson.
 Directions are given by vocal or hand signals

Applying tension
 The tape (eg 30 m) end of a tape is held over the first (rear) point by the rear
tapeperson while the forward tapeperson, holding the zero end, is lined in.
 For accurate results the tape must be straight and the two ends held at the same
elevation.
 Good communication between forward and rear tapepersons will avoid jerking the
tape, save time, and produce better results
Plumbing
 Weeds, bush, obstacles, and surface irregularities may make it undesirable to lay a
tape on a ground.

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 In those cases, the tape is held above ground in a horizontal position.

 Each end point on the tape is marked by placing the plumbbob string over the proper
tape graduation and securing it with a thumb.
 The rear tapeperson continues to hold a plumb-bob over the fixed point, while the
forward tapeperson marks the length.
 In measuring a distance shorter than a full tape length, the forward tapeperson moves
the plumb-bob string to a point on the tape over the ground mark.

Marking Tape Lengths

 After checking the measurement, the forward tapeperson signals that the point is OK,
 The rear tapeperson pulls up the rear pin, and they move ahead.
 The forward tapeperson drugs the tape, paces roughly 30 m, and stops.
 Just before the 30 m end reaches the pin that has been set, the rear person calls “tape”
to notify the forward tapeperson that they have gone 30 m.
 The process of measuring 30 m lengths is repeated until a partial tape length is needed
at the end of the line.

Reading the Tape

 There are two common styles of graduations on 30 m tapes.
 Therefore, it is necessary to identify the type of tape being used before starting work
to avoid making mistakes repeatedly

Recording the Distance

 After the partial tape length is obtained at the end of a line, the rear tapeperson
determines the number of full 30 m tape lengths by counting the pins collected from
the original set.
 Although taping procedures may appear to be relatively simple, high precision is
difficult to achieve, especially for beginners

Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground

 In taping on uneven or sloping ground, it is standard practice to hold the tape
horizontally and use a plumb bob at one or both ends.
 It is difficult to keep the plumb line steady for heights above the chest. Therefore, on
steeper slopes, where a 30 m (100 ft) length cannot be held horizontally without
plumbing from above shoulder level, shorter distances are measured and accumulated
to total a full tape length.
 This procedure, called breaking tape/step taping (fig. below).

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A representation of step-taping

From the above diagram let the Total Horizontal Distance be H

D1=25, D2=45, D3=30

Therefore:

H=D1+D2+D3+…+Dn

In case the slope angle is measured, then the total distance in equation above becomes

H=D1+D2+D3+…+Dn (Cos ᵦ)

When the difference in height is measured, the horizontal distance is determined from the
equation:

H= √ D 2−h2

General Procedure

Person A Holds the tension handle located at the “zero” end of the tape.
Person B Holds the tape reel and uses a tape grip to pull the tape.

Person B Pinches the plumb bob string at a convenient point on the tape.
Person A Holds the plumb bob string along the edge of the tape above his/her intended
mark.

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Person B Holds the plumb bob over his/her mark. Calls out “mark…. mark…. mark” to
indicate that the plumb bob is being held over the intended mark. Braces for
the tension applied by person A.
Person A Does the actual pulling. Reports the tension value and the corresponding tape
measurement.
Person B Reports the tape reading at his/her end of the tape.

Taping a Distance Longer than the Tape Length

The previous example assumed that the measured distance was less than the length of the
measuring tape (30 meters). When measuring a distance longer than the measuring tape, the
distance is subdivided into segments that are shorter than 30 meters. We subdivide the
distance using intermediate points.

These intermediate points typically consist of wooden stakes or chaining pins. For better
accuracy, these intermediate points should be located roughly 20 metres apart. The distance
between each intermediate point is measured. The total measured length is found by summing
all intermediate distances. Repeat the measurements.

In the field, the total length is re-measured by performing the measurements in the opposite
direction, using a different set of intermediate points. If the summed distance is not
comparable with the summed distance found previously, the entire taping exercise must be
repeated.

Example:

A 30-m tape was used to measure the following slope distances:

i. 450 m on a 12% land slope

ii. 322.8 m on a 1:9.8 slope and

iii. 295 m on a 60 30’ slope

iv. It was discovered that the tape used was 35 mm too short. compute total
horizontal distance

Solution

For 450 m 12% slope

To Sketch a diagram in class to aid understanding

12
slopeangle=tan θ= θ=6 . 84 30
100

But the actual slope distance

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450m
¿ 450 m− × 0 . 035 m=449 . 475 m
30 m
HorizontalDis tan c eH =DCosθ=449 . 479 cos 6 . 843=446 . 273 m

Similarly, for the other slope H2=320.756 m

H3=293.258 m

total actual horizontal distance

H=H 1 + H 2 + H 3=446 .273+ 320. 756+293 . 258=1060 . 287 m¿ 1060 .29 m(2 dp)

Exercise

The following distances were measured using a 30-m tape: 520 m on 8% slope; 287 m on a
1:8.5 m slope and 315 m on 80 30’. it was discovered the tape measure used was 115 mm too
long. Calculate the true total horizontal distance. Express your answer to three decimal
places.

The true length can be determined by incorporating a series of corrections as shown below:

LT =Lf +C S +C P +C T +C L

where LT is the true length (m)

Lf is the length measured in the field (m)

CS is a correction for sagging (m)

CP is a correction for elongation/pull (m)

CT is a correction for thermal expansion/temperature (m)

CL is a correction for scale (m)

CORRECTIONS

a) Temperature

The phenomenon of thermal expansion plays an important role in many engineering

applications. We need to establish a correction (CT) that can account for the change in length
of a steel tape due to the influence of temperature.

C T =α ( T −T S ) Lf

where  is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion (1.17 x 10-5 C-1)

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T is the temperature of the tape in the field (C)

TS is the temperature at which the tape was standardized (C)

Lf is the measured length obtained in the field (m)

b) Sagging

A steel tape not fully supported along its entire length will sag, no matter how large the
tensile force applied. As a result of sagging, your measured length will be too large. The sag
correction (CS) is given by:

−w2 L3f
C S=
24 P2

where w is the weight of the steel tape per unit length (N/m)

P is the tensile force applied on the tape (N)

c) Tension/pull Correction

When a steel tape is pulled with a tension greater than its standard value, it elongates in an
elastic manner. The elongation length (CP) caused by a tensile force can be calculated using

( P−PS ) Lf
CP=
AE

where P is the tensile force applied on the tape in the field (N)

PS is the tensile force at which the tape was standardized (N)

A is the cross-sectional area of the tape (m2)

E is Young’s modulus of elasticity (2.068 x 1011 N/m2)

d) Scale

Tape manufacturers do not guarantee steel tapes to be exactly correct.

The true length of any steel tape must be obtained by comparing it to a standard tape or
distance. The correction (CL) for an incorrect tape length can be found from:

Δm
C L= L
m f

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where m is the total length of the standard tape (m)

m is found by subtracting the length of the standard tape from the length of
the tested tape. (m)

e) Correction due to slope

Explain the function:

h2
D=S−
2S

Example

A 30-m steel tape, standardized at 20℃ using a tensile force of 70N was used on a field to
measure a distance of 29.663 m. the tensile force during measurement was 50N while
temperature was 30℃. If its cross-sectional area and weight are 1.29mm2 and 1.69N/m,
compute the true distance measured.

Solution:

We need to compute our correction factors

Temperature:

CT =α ( T−T S ) Lf
¿ ( 1.17×10−5 ) ( 30−20 ) ( 29.663 )
¿0.0035 m
Our field measurement was in error by 3.5 mm due to thermal expansion of the steel tape.
We need to add this value to our field measurement.

Sagging:

−w 2 L3f
C S=
24 P2
−( 0 .196 )2 ( 29. 663 )3
¿ 2
24 ( 50 )
¿− 0. 0167 m

Due to the sag in the tape, the reading was in error by 16.7 mm

Tension Correction

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( P−PS ) Lf
C P=
A E
( 50−70 ) ( 29 .663 )
¿
( 1. 69×10−6 )( 2. 068×10 11 )
¿− 0 .0017 m

The tension correction due to the tensile force on the steel tape was determined to be
-1.7 mm.

Scale Correction:

Δm
C L= Lf
m
( 29. 998−30 .000 )
¿ ( 29 . 663 )
30 .000
¿−0. 002 m
Our scale correction was found to be 2 mm.

Finally, we can now compute the true length as:

LT =L f +C S +C P +C T +C L
¿29 .663−0 .0167−0 . 0017+0 . 0035−0. 0020
¿29 .646 m
In summary, although we measured a length of 29.663 meters in the field, after applying all
the appropriate corrections, we established a true length of 29.646 meters, a difference of 17
mm.

LEVELING

Levelling is defined as the process of measuring the reletive difference in elevation/height

between points on, above and below the surface of the earth.

Leveling provide information for planning, establishment and layout of engineering works
buildings, roads, soil and water conseration.

Specifically leveling is applied in:

 layout of contour lines

 layourt of soil and water conservation structures, terraces, strip cropping and trash
lines
 set up of leveling foundations for buidings

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 running grade lines for canals, water ways, farm roads, drainage ditches
 marking of profiles for land leveling
 used to establish the boundaries, lines, and elevation for the construction of those
structures

Instruments/equipment used in leveling

 Dumpy level
 Tilting level
 Automatic Level
 Hand levels
 spirit level
 digital level
 transit
 theodolite
 tripod
 GPS
 Altimeter
 Total station

Dumpy Level

The most common type of level is called an engineer’s or a dumpy level. The leveling
instrument is a telescope containing both vertical and horizontal crosshairs and one or more
spirit levels (bubble in a liquid-filled tube) to indicate when the instrument base is horizontal.
The entire assembly, consisting of the frame, telescope and spirit level, can be “leveled” by
turning the three or four leveling screws that hold the frame in position above the tripod head.

Levelling staff
Levelling staffs are made of wood, metal or glass fiber and graduated in metres and
centimetres. The alternate metre lengths are usually shown in black and red on a white
background. The majority of staffs are telescopic or socketed in three or four sections for
easy carrying. Although the graduations can take various forms, the type adopted is E-pattern.
The smallest graduation on the staff is 0.01 m and readings are estimated to the nearest
millimetre.

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Optical levels
The types of level found in general use are the Dumpy, the Tilting, the Automatic level, the
Wye and Digital levels.

Classes of levelling Staff- Surveyor's view of the levelling rod with the crosshair

Rods come in two classes:

 Self-reading rods (sometimes called speaking rods).

 Target rods.

Self-reading rods are rods that are read by the person viewing the rod through the telescope
of the instrument. The gradations are sufficiently clear to read with good accuracy.

Target rods on the other hand, are equipped with a target. The target is a round or oval plate
marked in quarters in contrasting colours such as red and white in opposite quarters. A hole
in the centre allows the instrument user to see the rod's scale. The target is adjusted by the
staff man according to the instructions from the instrument man.

Topographer's rods are special purpose rods used to ease conducting topographical surveys.
The rod has the zero mark at mid-height and the graduations increase in both directions away
from the mid-height

Stadia rods A normal levelling rod can be used for stadia measures at shorter distances (up
to about 125 m). For longer distances, special stadia rods are better suited. In order to provide
good visibility at long distances, stadia rods are typically wider than leveling rods with larger
markings.

TYPES OF LEVELING

There are three major types of leveling

 differential leveling

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 profile leveling
 reciprocal leveling

Differential Leveling

Differential leveling is the process of finding the difference in elevation between two or more
points. When the two points are within the sight limits of the instrument, two readings are
taken. The difference in rod readings represents the difference in elevation between the two
points. When one or more of the points are beyond the range of the instrument turning points
are used.

Terms used in leveling

A level surface is any surface perpendicular to a line made by a plumb bob at any point on
the surface of the earth.

A level line is a curved line having all points at the same elevation and perpendicular to the
vertical line.

A Horizontal Plane is a perpendicular plane to the vertical line through a point. It is

tangential to the level surface through that point.

A Horizontal Line is a straight line perpendicular to a vertical line at the point of tangency
only to the level line.

Datum is the plane to which all vertical distances or elevations in survey work are referred
to. It is usually considered to be having an elevation of zero. The mean sea level (msl) is
taken as Datum.

Reduce level or Elevation (RL) of a point is its height or elevation above or below a Datum.

Bench mark (BM) is a fixed reference point or station of known or assumed elevations from
which relative elevation of other sections are calculated.

Back Sight (BS) this is a staff reading taken on a point of known elevation. It is also called a
plus sight (+). It is the first staff reading taken after the level is set up and is taken for the
purpose of obtaining the height of Instrument. It is the vertical distance between the line of
sight through the instrument and the point of known or assumed elevation on which the rod is
set.

Fore Sight (FS) this is a staff reading taken on a point, whose elevation is yet to be
determined. It is also called minus sight (-). It is the last staff reading denoting the shifting of
the instrument.

Intermediate Sight (IS) is a staff reading taken between BS and FS at the same setting of the
level.

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Height of instrument (HI) or Plane of collimation is the elevation of the line of sight of the
telescope as compared to the elevation of the bench mark when the instrument is leveled. It is
found by adding the BS to the elevation of the point on which the reading is taken.

Change point or Turning point (CP or TP) a point at which back sight and fore sight staff
readings are taken. It denotes the shifting of the level.

Station -A point whose elevation is to be determined, or a point which is to be established at

a given elevation. It is the point at which the staff is held.

The procedure for differential leveling is as follows:

1. Set up the instrument.

2. Take the BS reading on BM1.

3. Establish the TP1, and take the FS reading.

4. Move the instrument, and set up again.

5. Take the BS on the TP1

6. Establish the next TP2, and take the FS reading.

7. Move the instrument, and set up again.

8. Repeat steps 5 to 7 until a foresight is taken on the last station

Differential Levelling Example

Station Distance BS FS HI RL RMKS

BM 0+00 0.92 100.92 100.00 Assumed BM

A 0+50 0.79 1;18 100.53 99.74 TP1 ON CULVAT

B 1+00 1.29 1.38 100.44 99.15 TP2 nEARTREE

C 1+50 1.96 1.88 100.52 98.56 BM2

D 2+00 1.17 1.35 100.34 99.17 TP3 HOUSE

E 2+50 1.56 0.90 101.00 99.44 TP4 ON ROAD

F 3+00 1.01 99.99 ASSUMED BM 1

SUM 7.69 7.70

Check: ∑BS – ∑FS = FISTRL - LASTRL =7.69 – 7.70 = 99.99 – 100.00 = - 0.01

Error Control
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In surveying, it is important to control as many errors as possible. For differential Leveling

surveys three error checks should be completed:

 Close the Loop- to provide the information for the other two checks
 Note Check - conducted to catch any mathematical errors in the notes.
 Calculation of The Allowable Error of Closure-

The note check equation above is true; this means the 0.01m difference in the elevation of
BM1 is not caused by a math error in the data table. An error that is discovered after the
fact cannot be corrected. Therefore, the next step is to determine if the error is acceptable.

The third check is for the error of closure. The equation for allowable error of closure sets the
acceptability limits for surveys.

AE = K√M

Where AE is the Allowable Error,

K is a constant ranging from 0.01 to 1.0, and

M is the distance traveled (m).

The constant K is determined by the level of survey. A high order survey, one with very little
allowable error, would use a K value of 0.01. A very low order survey, one where more error
is acceptable, might use a K value of 1.0.

Problem: Is the closure error of 0.01m for the differential leveling survey in above
acceptable if the total distanced surveyed, out and back, was 1,098 m and a K value of 0.10 is
acceptable?

Solution:

AE = K√M = 0.10 ×1,098 m × 0.001= 0.10 ×√1.09728 = 0.09

0.01 < 0.09. The closure error is acceptable

Temporary Adjustment {Setting Up the Dumpy Level}

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The adjustments to be made at every setting of the instrument are called temporary
adjustments. The
following three adjustments are required for the instrument whenever set over a new point
before taking
a reading:
a) Setting
b) Levelling and
c) Focussing.

Setting
Tripod stand is set on the ground firmly so that its top is at a convenient height. Then the
level is fixed on its top. By turning tripod legs radially or circumferentially, the instrument is
approximately levelled.
Open tripod legs to about 60o and press the legs firmly into the ground. (The tripod head
should be approximately level).

Open instrument box and note how the level is packed to avoid damage of level when
replacing it after finishing the leveling excise. Lift the Level from the box, but never by the
telescope tube. Screw the level firmly on to the tripod.

Levelling

 Loosen the clamp and turn the telescope until the bubble axis is parallel to the line
joining any two screws.
 Turn the two screws inward or outward equally and simultaneously till bubble is
centred.
 Turn the telescope by 90° so that it lies over the third screw as shown below and level
the instrument by operating the third screw.
 Turn back the telescope to its original position (a) and check the bubble. Repeat steps
(ii) to (iv) till bubble is centred for both positions of the telescope.
 Rotate the instrument by 180°. Check the levelling.

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A B
1 3

POSITION 1- Telescope is parallel to screws A and B

Turn screws A and B in opposite direction until bubble is in the centre of the
run.
POSITION 2 – At right angles to position 1. Turn screw until bubble is in centre of the run.
POSITION 3 – Turn back to position 1 and repeat until bubble remains central when
telescope is turned.
Focussing
What is parallax: It is the apparent movement of the image of the object relative to the cross-
hairs caused by the image being in the plane of the cross-hairs.
Focussing is necessary to eliminate parallax while taking reading on the staff. The following
two steps are required in focussing:
(i) Focussing the eyepiece: For this, hold a sheet of white paper in front of telescope and
rotate eyepiece in or out till the cross hairs are seen sharp and distinct.
(ii) Focussing the objective: For this, telescope is directed towards the staff and the
focussing screw is turned till the reading appears clear and sharp.

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Diaphragm – carries cross hairs on a brass ring

Arrangement of crosshairs in the diaphragm of a Dumpy level

Methods of Levelling
(i) Barometric levelling
(ii) Hypsometric levelling
(iii) Direct levelling and
(iv) Indirect levelling.
Barometric Levelling
This method depends on the principle that atmospheric pressure depends upon the elevation
of place. Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure and hence elevation is
computed. However, it is not accurate method since the atmospheric pressure depends upon
season and temperature also. It may be used in exploratory surveys.
Hypsometric Levelling
This is based on the principle that boiling point of water decreases with the elevation of the
place. Hence the elevation difference between two points may be found by noting the
difference in boiling point of water in the two places. This method is also useful only for
exploratory survey.
Direct Levelling
It is common form of levelling in all engineering projects. In this method horizontal sight is
taken on a graduated staff and the difference in the elevation of line of sight and ground at
which staff is held are found. Knowing the height of line of sight from the instrument station,
the difference in the elevations of instrument station and the ground on which staff is held can
be found.
Indirect Methods
In this method instruments are used to measure the vertical angles. Distance between the
instrument and staff is measured by various methods. Then using trigonometric relations, the
difference in elevation can be computed. This is considered beyond the scope of this book.
One can find details of such methods in books on surveying and levelling.

Types of Direct Levelling

i. Simple levelling
ii. Differential levelling
iii. Fly levelling
iv. Profile levelling
v. Cross sectioning and
vi. Reciprocal levelling.

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Simple Levelling
It is the method used for finding difference between the levels of two nearby points. The
Figure below shows one such case in which level of A is assumed, say 200.00 m. RL of B is
required.

RL of A = 200.00 m
Back sight on A = 2.7 m.
∴ Plane of collimation for setting at station = 200 + 2.7 = 202.7 m
Fore sight on B = 0.80 m
∴ RL of B = 202.7 – 0.80 = 201.9 m

Differential Levelling
If the distance between two points A and B is large, it may not be possible to take the
readings on A and B from a single setting. In such situation differential levelling is used. In
differential levelling the instrument is set at more than one position, each shifting facilitated
by a change point.

Profile Levelling
It is the process of determining differences in elevation along a fixed line at designated
short measured intervals. This type of levelling is known as longitudinal sectioning. It is
necessary in design and construction of high way, railway, canal or sewage line projects. In
such cases, along the route, at regular interval, readings are taken and RL of various points
are found. Then, the section of the route is drawn to get the profile. Figure (a) shows the plan
view of the scheme of levelling and Fig. (b) shows the profile of the route. For drawing
profile of the route, vertical scale is usually larger compared to scale for horizontal distances.
It gives clear picture of the profile of the route.

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METHODS OF BOOKINGS

The two methods of working out elevations of points from levelling staff or rod readings
taken in the field are:

 The Collimation or the Height of Instrument System.

 The Rise and Fall System.

The collimation method

HEIGHT OF
INSTRUMENT.
BACK SIGHT FORESIGHT ELEVATION
H.I.
STATION B.S. F.S. R.L. (m) REMARKS

BM1 8.16 108.16 100.00

TP1 7.91 2.40 113.67

105.76

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TP2 9.44 3.07 120.04 110.60

TP3 12.30 6.91 125.43 113.13

BM2 2.11 123.32

∑ B . S .=37.81 ∑ F . S.=14.49

Arithmetical check:

(BS) – (FS) = LAST (RL) – FIRST (RL)

∑ B . S .−∑ F . S .=37 . 81−14 . 49=23 . 32

ELEV . B . M . 2−ELEV . B . M 1=123 . 32−100 . 00=23 . 32

Indicating no error in booking and reducing. They have been arithmetically checked
and are correct.

Rise and FALL Method

DISTANC B.S. I.S. F.S. RISE FALL R.L. REMARKS

E

0.00 4.000 100.00 BM1 A

100.00 4.500 3.000 1.000 101.00 B

250.00 3.500 2.500 2.000 103.00 C TP1

300.00 3.000 0.500 103.50 Manhole D

400.00 2.000 2.500 0.500 104.00 E TP2

500.00 3.000 1.000 103.00 F

14.000 3.000 11.000 4.000 1.000 Totals

11.000 1.000 Diff.

3.000 3.000 3.000 checked

ARITHEMATIC CHECK

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∑ (B. S .)−∑ (F . S .)=∑ (RISE)−∑ (FALL)=¿ ¿LAST R.L. – FIRST R.L.

14.00 – 11.00 = 4.000 – 1.000 = 103.000 – 100.000 = 3.000

indicating no error in booking and reducing. They have been arithmetically checked
and are correct.

ERROR OF CLOSURE:

The maximum permissible error of closure depends on the purpose of leveling. For ordinary
leveling maximum permissible error is given by the following:

Allowable Error (AE) in mm= ±10 √n

Where: n = Distance in Km

Example:

The difference between the original elevation of BM, and its calculated elevation is

2515.006 – 2515.000 = 0.006m = 6mm

A reasonable allowance for the error is given by:

Allowable error = + 10√length of traverse in km (mm)

The length of traverse is 600m = 0.6 km

Thus, Allowable Error = ±10 √0.6 = 7.74mm

Thus 6.0mm is within reasonable accuracy.

PROFILE LEVELLING

It is the method of direct leveling the object of which is to determine the elevation of points at
measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the surface along that line.
The elevations can then be drawn or plotted on a profile paper to a selected scale so that
studies can be made relating to grades, depths, high and low spots and estimating quantities
of cuts and fills.

It is particularly used in laying out roads, terraces, water ways, contour bunds, pipelines etc.
Levels are taken at the center line of the structure.

The procedure involves making a series of instrument set ups along the general route between
the points including a number of intermediate sights between turning points. Usually the line
on which a profile is to be run is located and the station marked before profile levels are
taken. The Bench Mark should be set up near the station point.

Level readings are taken at regular intervals and also at major breaks in slopes and other
important points such as branch ditches, gullies, culverts, bridges, roads fence lines

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PLOTTING THE PROFILE

The profile is plotted from profile level notes or from elevations taken from a topographic
map. Formation level is then marked to indicate the level to which earthwork will have to be
carried out.

Formation Level
CUT

FILL

Common lines requiring surveying are drains, roads, fences, and retaining walls. When this
information is plotted on a graph, it will give a profile of the line and will enable one to
establish grades, find high or low spots, and make estimates of depths of cuts and many other
decisions.

Data for profile leveling.

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STA BS HI FS ELEV

BM1 6.02 106.02 100.00

0.00 7.34 98.68

100 5.76 100.26

225 3.67 102.35

290 1.72 107.40 (0.34) 105.68

340 4.03 103.37

400 6.65 100.75

460 4.00 107.28 (4.12) 103.28

TP2 3.34 105.27 (5.35) 101.93

BM1 (5.25) 100.02

BS 15.08 FS 15.06

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|FS − BS| = 0.02

| Δ Elevation| = 100.02 − 100.00 = 0.02

0.02 = 0.02 Notes check

Acceptable error = 0.10 {EQ\r (920 ÷ 5280)} = 0.04

0.02 < 0.04 Closure error acceptable at each important point.

Using Profile Data

The results of profile leveling surveys are most useful when they are plotted in a graph. The
principal purposes for plotting a profile are:

(1) to aid in the selection of the most economical grade, location, and depth of irrigation
canals, drainage ditches, drain tile lines, sewer lines, roads, etc.; and

(2) to determine the amount of cut or fill required for these installations. The graph is plotted
with the elevation on the ordinate (vertical scale) and the stations on the abscissa (horizontal
scale).

Problem: What will be the maximum depth of cut for the data in example above to install a
drain at 2.0 ft below the elevation of station 0.0 and with a slope of 0.5 %?

Solution: This problem could be answered by calculating the difference in elevation between
each station and the proposed drain, but that would require a calculation for almost every
station. Plotting the data will provide the visual information to determine where the greatest
depth will be.

The plot shows that the maximum elevation of the profile is 105.7 ft and at that station the
elevation of the drain will be at 98.20 ft.

105.7 ft − 98.20 ft = 7.5 ft.

The maximum depth of cut to install the drain is 7.5 ft. The problem could also be solved by
calculating the difference in elevation between the profile

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15.24 30.48 45.72 60.96 76.2 91.44 107.8 meters

Profile plot of example data with drain. {1 ft/s = 0.3048 m/s} and the drain for each station
surveyed using the equation:

Elevation drain = Elevation starting + (Station distance × Slope).

With a slope for the drain of 0.5%, for station 290 ft (29.5m) in the sample data the elevation
of the drain is

Elevation drain = Elevation starting + (Station distance × Slope)

= 29.5m+ (88.392m× 0.005)

= 29.5m + 0.5m= 30.0m

The elevation of the profile at station 30.2m (32.2m) minus the elevation of the

drain at station 30.2m (29.9) leaves a depth of cut of:

32.2m − 29.9m= 2.3m.

Allowable error

AE = K√M,

Where AE is the allowable error of closure,

K is a constant, 3–6 mm, and

M is the distance surveyed, in kilometers

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