Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e03221

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Preparation and performance research of ecological concrete using

waste wood
Chenyang Xu , Qiuyi Li , Peihan Wang *, Yuanxin Guo *
College of Civil Engineering & Architecture, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, Shandong 266109, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: To mitigate environmental damage from mineral aggregate extraction, bio-based materials have
Sustainability garnered research interest as potential replacements for natural mineral aggregates. This work
Waste wood utilized waste wood as filler to prepare lightweight foam concrete with thermal insulation, low-
Foam concrete
temperature and corrosion resistance properties. The feasibility of using wood aggregate-based
Thermal conductivity
Durability
foam concrete (WFC) was explored in terms of dry density, softening coefficient, compressive
strength, thermal conductivity, chloride ion permeability, freezing resistance, and sulfate attack
resistance. Results showed that simultaneous addition of waste wood aggregate (WA) and foam
effectively reduced WFC bulk weight and thermal conductivity while enhancing water resistance.
However, the porous morphology of WA and foam caused the reduction of mechanical properties.
In terms of durability, the addition of WA can increase the energy absorption capacity when WFC
is subjected to expansion stress, reduce the damage to the structure, and have an inhibiting effect
on the cracking of WFC caused by sulfate attack and freeze-thaw cycles. Nevertheless, WA’s high
water absorption loosened the matrix in WFC’s interfacial transition zone (ITZ), increasing
harmful pores and negatively affecting durability. In addition, in order to predict the mechanical
properties of WFC and the resistance to sulfate attack, this study established a function model for
the relationship between the compressive strength (Maintenance specimens of the same age and
Specimen of sulfate attack) and the WA dosage. In conclusion, The use of waste wood for the
preparation of WFC is more advantageous and sustainable than conventional foam concrete for
the insulation of precast walls and coastal structures.

1. Introduction

With natural resources depleting and environmental pollution worsening, the construction industry must find sustainable building
materials and technologies. Natural sand and gravel in traditional concrete materials not only consume substantial resources, but also
cause serious damage to the environment. Therefore, it has become increasingly important to find an environmentally friendly and
sustainable alternative material to prepare concrete [1,2]. As a large agricultural and forestry country, the proper disposal of crop
by-products has been a continuous concern of the country. At present, the treatment of these wastes were mostly landfill, incineration
and composting. Incineration produces large amounts of smoke and harmful gases, affecting air quality and human health. In landfills,
organic matter in waste decomposes to produce greenhouse gases like methane, which is potentially harmful to the greenhouse effect
and climate change [3–5]. The recovery rate of waste woody materials from bio-based materials is even lower, at ~10 %. This is due to

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: 20202204019@stu.qau.edu.cn (P. Wang), guoyuanxin@qau.edu.cn (Y. Guo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e03221
Received 25 January 2024; Received in revised form 9 April 2024; Accepted 25 April 2024
Available online 7 May 2024
2214-5095/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
C. Xu et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e03221

the wide variety of waste wood materials with different material properties and containing impurities such as plastics and paints.
Therefore, the treatment and utilization of these materials is very complicated. At present, waste wood materials are mainly used in
biomass power generation and other fields, but the application in the construction field still remains in a blank state.
Compared with mineral aggregates, biomass aggregates are characterized by high toughness, high water retention and light weight.
They represent a promising new building material. Consequently, using biomass aggregate to build future communities has become a
hot topic nowadays [8]. Current research on biomass aggregates focuses on wood waste, plant fiber and agricultural crop waste. In
terms of agriculture, some researchers [9,10] found that agricultural residues used as aggregates yield more homogeneous internal
humidity, better hydration, lower weight, and varying degrees of reduced compressive strength. Wei et al. [11] utilized two types of
cementitious materials to fabricate novel corn stover bio-composites and observed that thermal conductivity varied across different
temperatures, with temperature more sensitively affecting wet-state concrete’s thermal conductivity, indicating greater water ab­
sorption impact on bio-aggregate thermal insulation. Liu et al. [12,13] developed biomass recycled aggregate concrete using coconut
shells, achieving 73.9 % lower thermal conductivity versus conventional concrete, which has good potential for building energy
efficiency. While Virgini et al. [14] found that when wheat husk was used as a bio-based aggregate in lightweight concrete applica­
tions, in addition to reducing the density and improving the insulation properties of the concrete, wheat husk formed a mesh structure
in the concrete, which effectively increased the compressive strength. In the case of plant fibers, in addition to increasing the tensile
and flexural strength of the material as effectively as conventional fibers, they also increased the thermal resistance of the material,
thus improving its thermal insulation effect[16,17]. Zhang et al. [18] investigated the effect of bamboo fibers on the mechanical
properties of auto-conditioned air bubble concrete (AAC) and found that due to the high specific strength and modulus of bamboo
fibers, they had high strength and stiffness per unit of mass, which could significantly increase the flexural and compressive strengths
of AAC. To investigate the improvement of concrete and mortar with plant fibers in harsh environments, Khan et al. [19] explored the
resistance of mortar to chemical attack and freezing using fibers such as jute and found that the plant fibers reduced spalling of mortar
due to environmental influences compared to conventional mortar. Other researchers explored the effect of wood fibers on concrete. It
was found that wood fibers, which were a natural fiber class, could effectively disperse and absorb stresses and prevent crack
expansion, thus improving the toughness of concrete and mortar [20,21]. Farnaz et al. [22] found some wood compounds react with
sulfate during sulfate attack, reinforcing the interface and increasing eroded concrete’s compressive strength by 25 %. In addition,
when waste wood acted as an aggregate, the effects on concrete were mainly in terms of increased porosity, reduced mechanical
properties, hindered hydration reaction and altered interfacial effects [23,24]. This is due to the chemical composition difference
between wood aggregate and sand. Wood aggregates contain a certain amount of organic matter such as wood fibers and lignin, which
may react with chemicals in cement and affect the hardening process and strength development of concrete [25,26]. However, when
Ceren et al. [1,27] evaluated the durability, thermal insulation and cost effectiveness of mortars containing waste wood, they found
that such mortars performed well in terms of freeze-thaw resistance and thermal insulation. The results of the cost-effectiveness
assessment showed cement mortars containing waste wood materials were highly cost-effective and could be used as an environ­
mentally friendly alternative to construction materials. Secondly, when waste wood replaced cementitious materials, it could reduce
water loss, which resulted in lower shrinkage, enhanced thermal insulation, increased resistance to sulfate attack and improved
physical properties. This can be very beneficial for improving the quality and longevity of concrete structures [18,28,29].
To promote circular economy. sustainable development, energy efficiency in buildings, and CO2 reduction, the use of foam to
construct cellular porous concrete has become a key concern nowadays [30]. Recently, It has been found that the introduction of foam
can change the microstructural morphology of concrete, so that concrete structures have potential advantages in hindering heat
transfer, reducing heat loss and improving the energy efficiency of buildings [31,32]. In addition, because of the increased number of
pores, foam concrete can be a lightweight concrete, which can reduce the loading of a building and the costs incurred to address the
building’s load-bearing capacity [33,34]. Foam also makes concrete more fluid, allowing it to fill and cover spaces of various sizes, and
3D printing technology for concrete was given potential technical support [35,36]. However, the incorporation of foam reduced the
internal stability of concrete and the pore structure formed by the foam makes it more sensitive to the penetration of moisture and
chemicals, which led to deterioration of its mechanical properties, reduction of water resistance, and accelerated diffusion of chloride
ions. As a result, foam concrete is more susceptible to erosion and damage. To ameliorate this negative effect, Gencel et al. [37,38] used
fibers to improve the properties of foam concrete and found that the fibers formed a mesh structure in the concrete, which could
effectively enhance the tensile strength of the concrete. At the same time, the presence of fibers could prevent the expansion of cracks
between the thin walls of the foam, thus improving the mechanical properties of foam concrete.Xiong et al. [39] found that the
temperature also had a certain effect on the foam concrete, when the foam temperature was 20 ℃, the surface tension of the foam was
lower, so that the foam had a smaller bubble size, and the distribution of pores became more uniform.
In summary, waste wood from bio-based materials can serve as an effective reinforcing material for concrete. Such reinforcement
would be most pronounced in the "honeycomb" structural system of foam concrete. It can enhance fracture toughness and durability of
foam concrete. Therefore, in this study, wood aggregate-based foam concrete (WFC) was prepared with varying volume content of
wood aggregate (WA), and the dry density, softening coefficient, thermal conductivity, chlorine ion permeability, frost resistance and
resistance to sulfate attack were evaluated.

2. Experimental program

2.1. Materials

Cement was selected with a density of 2.96 g/cm3 from 42.5 Sulphate aluminate cement (SAC); Natural fine aggregate (NFC) with a

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density of 2.65 g/cm3 was selected from river sand. Fig. 1(a) shows the particle grading; additives were selected from powder pol­
ycarboxylic acid high-efficiency water reducing agent with the water reduction rate of 40 %, the gas content of 2.5 %, and the PH
value of 7; Foaming agent was selected animal protein foaming agent with PH value of 6.9–7.2, foaming times of 20.4 times. The waste
wood with the thermal conductivity in dry state of 0.11 W/(m⋅K), and the thermal conductivity of 0.16 W/(m⋅K) in water state was
selected from garden cuttings. Additionally, Fig. 1(b) and (c) shows that WA has a porous structure. Depending on the randomness of
the crushing method, WA exhibits different morphologies such as smooth grain and transverse grain. Table 1 and Table 2 presents the
specific chemical compositions of the samples.

2.2. Mix design and preparation

2.2.1. Mix design of WFC

Tests were conducted to prepare lightweight insulating concrete of low density using both WA and foam admixture variables. The
volume admixture of WA was 20 %, 25 %, 30 %, 35 % and 40 %, foam admixture was 1 %, 2 % and 3 % of SAC and water
reducing agent was 1.2 % of SAC mass. WF0 refers to foam concrete without WA; WF1 refers to WFC with 1 % foam admixture; WF2
refers to WFC with 2 % foam admixture; and WF3 refers to WFC with 3 % foam admixture. Of these, five different WA as described
above were selected in WF1, WF2, and WF3 for the study of engineering properties. A total of 15 groups of WFC with different dosages
were prepared for the two variables and have are shown in Table 3.

2.2.2. Preparation of WFC

In order to ensure the volume stability of waste wood in WFC, it was selected as filler after two consecutive crushing and screening
with particle size of 4.75–9.5 mm and thickness greater than 0.4 times of the average particle size, as shown in Fig. 2. Considering the
water absorption of WA in WFC preparation, water spraying was carried out in the early stage of preparation to make WA in a semi-
moist state. Firstly, SAC and NFA were added into the mixing pot for dry mixing, and water and water reducing agent were added to
obtain fresh mortar after sufficient mixing. Next, WA was added and mixed until well-incorporated. Finally, after stopping the mixer,
foam was added and mixed again, as shown in Fig. 2.

2.3. Testing method

2.3.1. Dry density measurement of WFC

Referring to JG/T 266–2011 "Foamed concrete"，After preparing 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm specimens with standard
maintenance, the specimens (three per group) were put into 105±5 ℃ electric blast drying oven for drying to constant weight after 28
d, and the mass after drying was measured as the dry density. It should be noted that every 12 h to determine the mass of the test block.
If the difference between the two measurements of the mass of the test block was less than 0.5 %, then it would be dried to constant
weight.

2.3.2. Mechanical property test of WFC

Referring to GB/T50081–2019 "Standard for test methods of concrete physical and mechanical properties", test blocks with di­
mensions of 100 mm × 100 mm× 100 mm were prepared, and the compressive strengths of 3 d, 7 d, 14 d, and 28 d were determined
using a fully automated compressive testing machine under standard curing conditions.

2.3.3. Measurement of thermal conductivity of WFC

Referring to GB/T 10294–2008 "Determination of steady state thermal resistance and related characteristics of insulation materials
(protective hot plate method)", a thermal conductivity tester was used to determine the size of 300 mm×300 mm×35 mm test block.
The temperature of the cold plate was set at 15 ℃ and the temperature of the hot plate was set at 35 ℃, see Eq. 1.

Fig. 1. (a) Cumulative screening curve, (b) Position 1 of waste wood morphology and (c) Position 2 of waste wood morphology.

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Table 1
Chemical composition of SAC (%).
Type CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO SO3 TiO2 Loss

SAC 52.5 8.76 22.43 3.39 3.79 8.56 0.25 0.32

Table 2
Compound composition of WA (%).
Component Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin

Chemical Composition 46.1 25 28

Table 3
Mix design optimization (kg/m3).
Group SAC NFA Water Water Reducer WA Foam

WF0 WF0–1 650 1300 280 7.8 0 5

WF0–2 650 1300 280 7.8 0 10
WF0–3 650 1300 280 7.8 0 15
WF1 WF1–1 535 1070 204 6.4 58.2 5.4
WF1–2 502 1004 190 6.0 72.75 5.0
WF1–3 468 936 178 5.6 87.3 4.7
WF1–4 433 866 166 5.2 101.9 4.3
WF1–5 399 798 153 4.8 116.4 4.0
WF2 WF2–1 535 1070 204 6.4 58.2 10.7
WF2–2 502 1004 190 6.0 72.8 10.0
WF2–3 468 936 178 5.6 87.3 9.4
WF2–4 433 866 166 5.2 101.9 8.7
WF2–5 399 798 153 4.8 116.4 7.9
WF3 WF3–1 535 1070 204 6.4 58.2 16.1
WF3–2 502 1004 190 6.0 72.8 15.1
WF3–3 468 936 178 5.6 87.3 14.0
WF3–4 433 866 166 5.2 101.9 13.0
WF3–5 399 798 153 4.8 116.4 12.0

Sulphate aluminate cement (SAC); Natural fine aggregate (NFC); Wood aggregate (WA); Wood and foam (WF)

Fig. 2. Preparation process of WFC.

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The thermal conductivity calculation formula of WFC is as follows:

φ×d
λ= (1)
ΔT × S

λ is the thermal conductivity of WFC (W/m⋅k); φ is the average thermal conductivity (J/s); d is the thickness of the heat conduction
plate (mm), here take 35 mm; ΔT is the temperature difference between the two surfaces of the specimen (◦ C); s is the specimen area
(m2).

2.3.4. Measurement of softening coefficient of WFC

Referring to GB/T 20473–2006 "Dry-mixed thermal insulating composition for buildings", the test preparation size was
100 mm×100 mm×100 mm specimens. The WFC was placed in a constant temperature water tank at 20±5 ◦ C, and the water surface
was adjusted to be 20 mm above the specimen, and the compressive strength test was carried out after 48 d of resting. Other WFC was
put into the drying box and dried to constant weight and then tested for compressive strength, see Eq. 2.
The softening coefficient formula of WFC is as follows:
( )
1∑3 f 1
K= i (2)
3 i=1 f 0

K is the softening coefficient of WFC; f1 is the compressive strength of WFC after water absorption and saturation; f0 is the compressive
strength of WFC in the adiabatic state.

2.3.5. Measurement of Resistance to chloride ion penetration

Referring to GB/T50082–2009 "Standard for test methods of long-term performance and durability of ordinary concrete", the test
was conducted using the RCM method for Measurement of Resistance to chloride ion penetration. According to the relevant speci­
fications, the diameter of the test block used in the RCM method is 100 mm ± 1 mm, and the height is 50 mm ± 2 mm, which was
measured using the RCM test device after 28d of standard curing, as shown in Eq. 3.
( √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ )
1∑3 0.0239 × (273 + T) · L (273 + T) · L · Xd
DRCM = Xd − 0.0238 (3)
3 i=3 (U − 2) · t U− 2

DRCM is the unsteady state chloride migration coefficient of the WFC; U is the voltage used during the determination of the WFC (v);
T is the temperature of the anode solution during the test (℃); L is the thickness of the WFC (mm); Xd is the average value of the depth
of penetration of chloride ions in the WFC (mm); t is the penetration duration (h)

2.3.6. Measurement of frost resistance

The test refers to GB/T 50082–2009 "Standard for test methods of long-term performance and durability of ordinary concrete".
Firstly, the specimen with the size of 100 mm × 100 mm × 400 mm was prepared, and after 24 d of standard curing, the specimen was
saturated with water as well as the initial value of transverse fundamental frequency was measured. In the second step, the specimens
were put into the freeze-thaw cycle box. The minimum transverse fundamental frequency measurements were carried out after 50, 75,
100, 125 and 150 cycles, as shown in Eq. 4 and Eq. 5.
1∑3 W0 − Wn
ΔWn = × 100 (4)
3 i=3 W0
ΔWn is the mass loss rate of WFC after N cycles (%); W0 is the initial mass of WFC (g); Wn is the mass of WFC after N cycles (g)

1∑3 f 2n
Pn = × 100 (5)
3 i=3 f 20

Pn is the relative dynamic elastic modulus of WFC after n freeze-thaw cycles (%); f0 is the initial value of transverse fundamental
frequency of WFC (HZ); fn is the transverse fundamental frequency of WFC after n cycles (HZ)

2.3.7. Measurement of resistance to sulfate attack

Referring to GB/T50082–2009 "Standard for test methods of long-term performance and durability of ordinary concrete", the wet
and dry cycle tests were carried out using standard curing up to 28d with the size of 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm specimens. In this
case, the drying temperature was 80±5◦ C and the soaking solution was prepared from 5 % Na2SO4-.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Dry density and softening coefficient

WA is a lightweight aggregate, and the addition of foam causes the WFC to be "honeycombed".Therefore, with increasing WA and
pore space, WFC decreases. It was found that dry density significantly decreased with increasing WA at a fixed foam dosage, as shown

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in Fig. 3(a). Among them, compared to mineral aggregate, dry density decreased by over 30 % with 40 % WA.and compared to FC,
dry density decreased by over 18.8 % with 40 % WA. Therefore, WAC satisfies the dry density standard for lightweight concrete in
GB/T 4111–2013, as shown in Fig. 4(a).
As shown in Fig. 3(b), the softening coefficient decreases with increasing foam doping. Among them, the softening coefficient of
WFC exceeded 0.75 at 1 % foam doping, and the softening coefficient of WFC was less than 0.75 at 3 % foam doping. Additionally, the
softening coefficient of WFC increased with increasing WA doping, but the growth rate of the softening coefficient decreased at higher
WA doping. From the above analysis, it was found that foam doping had a negative effect on the water resistance of WFC and WA
doping had a positive effect on the water resistance of WFC. Foam caused the internal pores of WFC to become denser, and the thin
walls between the pores reduced the resistance to free water. In addition, WA has a positive effect on the water resistance of WFC
because WFC is a highly absorbent material that can reduce the free water content in WFC and minimize damage to the "honeycomb"
pores from free water.

3.2. Compressive strength of WFC

It was found through Fig. 5 that the compressive strength decreased gradually with the increase of foam content. Among them,
when the WA dosage was 20 %, the 28 d compressive strength of 1 % foam dosage decreased by 52.9 % than that of 3 % foam
dosage. In addition, according to the characteristics of bio-based materials, it can be found that the water absorption of WA is high,
resulting in a weak linear relationship between WA dosage and strength loss under the same water consumption. As shown in Fig. 5,
with the increase of age, the strength increase was faster at 3 d, while the strength growth rate from 7 d to 14 d showed a slowdown. In
particular, the 28 d compressive strength decreased by 14.2 % for 20 % dosed WA compared to 30 % dosed WA, and decreased by
1.5 % for 30 % dosed WA compared to 40 % dosed WA in the PP1 group. Secondly, the compressive strength of WFC at 40 % dosage
of WA and 1 % dosage of foam decreased by 20.5 % compared to FC, as shown in Fig. 4(b). The adsorbed water in WA slowly
evaporated when the concrete was cured, which promoted the hydration of the cement inside WFC, so that the early strength of WFC
was compensated. At a same time, some studies [40] have pointed out that WA is a natural fiber-like material that absorbs and dis­
perses energy when subjected to impact stress, which effectively prevents tension cracking in the cement matrix and safeguards the
WFC strength. In addition, WA dosages decreased internal moisture and increased polysaccharide, which reduced the cement
workability and slowed down the cement hardening time. This led to difficulties in mixing the foam with the cementitious matrix and
prolonged foam instability, which had a positive effect on the mechanical properties

3.3. Thermal conductivity

Due to the poor thermal insulation of traditional concrete for modern buildings, the thermal resistance is low, resulting in large
energy consumption loss. To compensate for this deficiency, this study used biomass aggregate and foam to prepare WFC for the
purpose of improving the building’s thermal insulation and reduce operational energy consumption. As shown in Fig. 6(b), the thermal
conductivity of WFC was reduced by 59.1 % compared to lightweight aggregate concrete [41] at 40 % WA dosage in group PP1.
Additionally, the average reduction in thermal conductivity was 16.42 % when the foam admixture was increased from 1 % to 2 %
and 4.2 % when it was increased from 2 % to 3 %. The tests showed that adding WA and foam effectively improved the thermal
insulation performance of WFC.
According to the literature [42,43], the thermal conductivity of WA was lower compared to other mineral aggregates, while the
thermal conductivity of concrete, its own density and the type of aggregate were closely related. Some studies have shown [44,45] that

Fig. 3. (a) Dry density of WFC, (b) Softening coefficient of WFC.

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Fig. 4. (a) Dry density of different kinds of concrete, (b) Compressive strength of different types of concrete.

Fig. 5. (a) Compressive strength of WFC with foam content of 1 %, (b) Compressive strength of WFC with foam content of 2 %, and (c)
Compressive strength of WFC with foam content of 3 %.

Fig. 6. (a) Chloride migration coefficient of WFC, (b) Thermal conductivity of WFC.

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this is because the reduction in density mainly originates from the increase in internal pores, and the thermal conductivity of gases in
the pores is the lowest of the three phases (solid, liquid, gas), resulting in a reticulated porous structure in waste wood. This not only
provides internal pores, but also serves as a skeleton support. In addition, when the WA dosage was lower, the WFC extension was
larger, and the foam in the freshly mixed concrete was more likely to form tandem pores, which had a positive effect on the thermal
insulation effect; when the WA dosage was higher, the WA absorbed more moisture from the surrounding cementitious matrix, causing
more foam loss around WA and slowing the rate of decreasing thermal conductivity. However, with the increase of WA doping, the
internal humidity of WFC increased, which accelerated cement hydration, and reduced the instability from the foam caused by the
inhomogeneity of the internal pores of WFC, positively affecting thermal insulation. Therefore, lightweight concrete prepared by the
hybrid system of WA and foam has more potential for building energy efficiency.

3.4. Resistance to chloride ion penetration

The DRCM decreased gradually with increasing WA content. When the foam dosage was 1 % and the WA content increased from
20 % to 35 %, the DRCM decreased from 5.79×10− 12 m2/s to 5.3×10− 12 m2/s, a reduction of 8.1 %; when WA content increased
from 35 % to 40 %, the DRCM increase from 5.3×10− 12 m2/s to to 5.32×10− 12 m2/s, an increase of 0.37 %, as shown in Fig. 6(a).
This indicated that concrete’s resistance to chloride ions increased with WA content. The main reason for this was that increasing of
WA reduced the internal moisture of WFC, decreasing the temperature difference between inside and outside of the specimen, which
reduced the thermal cracks caused by the capillary channels left by water evaporation and the temperature difference between inside
and outside of the specimen and also accelerated the growth rate of caliche and gel, which refined the pores around the WA[46]. In
addition, referring to relevant literature [44], compounds in waste wood (e.g., lignin) can react with Cl- to form a chemical that hinders
chloride ion penetration. However, the resistance to chloride ion erosion increased slowly and showed a decreasing trend when WA
content exceeded 30 %.WA itself has porous characteristics and lower resistance to chloride ion than cementitious materials; higher
WA content caused free water containing Cl– to preferentially pass through the WA and be transported interiorly, increasing DRCM.
The average increase in DRCM was 8.14 % when foam doping was increased from 2 % to 3 % and 2.2 % when foam doping was
increased from 1 % to 2 %. It was because of the increase in tandem porosity when the foam admixture was increased to 3 %. At the
same time, the foam made the concrete expansion increase and the internal moisture increase, which was also one of the reasons for the
increase of DRCM, but the addition of WA could reduce the impact caused by the above problems. The combined results of the analyses
indicate that increasing WA content is effective in improving chloride permeability, with implications for enhancing corrosion

Fig. 7. (a) The mass loss of WFC with 1 % foam content after freeze–thaw cycles, (b) The mass loss of WFC with 2 % foam content after
freeze–thaw cycles, (c) The mass loss of WFC with 3 % foam content after freeze–thaw cycles, (d) The relative dynamic elastic modulus of WFC with
foam content of 1 % after freeze–thaw cycles, (e) The relative dynamic elastic modulus of WFC with foam content of 2 % after freeze–thaw cycles,
and (f) The relative dynamic elastic modulus of WFC with foam content of 2 % after freeze–thaw cycles.

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resistance and environmental sustainability. Concurrently, increasing foam content leads to deteriorated chloride permeability,
highlighting the importance of balancing durability in pursuit of lightweight properties.

3.5. Frost resistance

During the freeze–thaw cycle process, the specimen appeared relatively intact after 25 cycles; individual WA particles were exposed
after 50 and 75 cycles; and a large amount of WA was exposed after 100 cycles. Among them, the mass loss was more than 1 %, and the
relative dynamic elastic modulus ranged from a high of 93.5 % to a low of 67.8 %, as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. According to the
freeze–thaw cycling test results and related literature [47,48], it was shown that some of the free water in the bubble pores within the
WFC was frozen during the freeze–thaw period and diffused into the capillary pores, which caused the capillary pores to generate
hydrostatic pressure and undergo expansion and cracking. After the introduction of foam, it increased the pores inside the WFC,
resulting in a negative correlation between the foam content and the freezing resistance. Moreover, free water freezing in the bubble
pores created a concentration difference with the unfrozen free water in the capillary pores, which displaced the capillary free water
toward the bubble pores and caused expansion cracking. However, lignin in WA is a phenylpropane monomer with more polar groups,
which forms a stronger structural three-dimensional network in the cell wall, acting as filler and adhesive. As a result, the WA in the
WFC sustained little damage after several freeze-thaw cycles, exhibiting an adsorption effect as free water was released within the WA.
This strengthened interfacial adhesion between the WA and substrate, mitigating freeze-swelling cracking at their interface [40]. Based
on bio-based materials, WA was a high water absorption material, and most of the harmful substances entered the concrete interior
through water, such as Na+ and other substances.But this characteristic also reduces the problem of increased internal moisture caused
by foam, which can contribute positively to the frost resistance. In summary, the study provides a framework for achieving lightweight
concrete with excellent frost resistance, with implications for material selection and enhancing durability of building structures in cold
regions.

3.6. Resistance to sulfate attack

After 15 cycles of wet–dry sulfate cycling, the rate of increase in compressive strength was greater with increasing WA dosage
compared to the same age–conditioned WFC. However, a decrease in the growth rate of strength was observed with increasing foam
dosage, as shown in Fig. 11(a), (b), and (c). Referring to related literature [49,50], sulfate reacted with SAC products (hydrated calcium
sulfoaluminate, etc.), producing expansion components such as calomel.This filled the capillary pores, foam pores, and WA cracks in
the specimen, resulting in a denser interior of the WFC and some expansion stresses, as shown in Figs. 9(b) and 10(a). Moreover,
increasing WA creased more gaps in the WFC and loss of foam, making this phenomenon more significant. It should be noted that
another type of calcite was also found by SEM, such crystals were around 10 μm in length and are mainly distributed at the pores,
Mehta et al. [51] concluded this calcite formed under low pH conditions and produced little swelling, as shown in Fig. 9(c) and Fig. 10
(a). Additionally, the improvement of sulphate erosion by appropriate bubbles was found through relevant studies [49,52] and Fig. 11
(d), (e), attributed to closed bubbles in WFC effectively blocking sulphate ion intrusion and reducing crystalline salt formation, thus
lessening sulfate attack. Fig. 11(d), (e), and (f) also showed that the strength and corrosion resistance coefficients decreased after 45
erosions, and the rate of decrease in corrosion resistance coefficients increased with the increase of WA, which indicated that the
expansion stress was greater than the ability of the WFC to resist the cracking inside the specimen, resulting in a decrease in the
strength of the WFC. Secondly, sulfate reacts with calcium ions and destroys the C–S–H structure, causing damage to the interior of
WFC.
After 15 cycles of wet–dry sulfate cycling, the relationship between compressive strength (maintenance specimens of the same age
and specimen of sulfate attack) and WA dosage was fitted with both ExpDec and Gauss functions. Maintenance specimens of the same
age and Specimen of sulfate attack) had good functional relationships with compressive strength (R2=~0.89), which can provide a
potential advantage for subsequent test prediction and optimization. Specifically, the offset (y0) in the ExpDec decay function can
indicate the basic compressive strength of WF1, WF2 and WF3, while the high or low effect of WA doping on the compressive strength
is expressed by the initial value, such as 93.8 in Table 4, which represents a small curve decay. Additionally, t in the equation
accurately responds to the effect of increasing WA doping on the decay rate of compressive strength, such as 15.8 in Table 4, the curve
decay rate is larger, see Eq. 6. Compared with the decay function, the Gaussian function can be used to predict the increase on the basis
of similar numerical algorithms, and the fitting parameter is similar to ExpDec, as shown in Eq. 7. The specific functional models are
shown in Table 4.
(− x)
f (x) = A × exp + y0 (6)
t
A is the initial value; t is the decay rate; y0 is the offset of the curve
( )
(x − b)2
f (x) = A × exp − + y0 (7)
t

A is the amplitude parameter; t is the standard deviation parameter; -b is the mean parameter, the center position of the control
function; y0 is the offset of the curve;

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C. Xu et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e03221

Fig. 8. WFC shape photos after freeze-thaw cycles.

Fig. 9. (a) Interface between WA and cementitious matrix, (b) Hydration products of WFC (hydration products after sulfate attack), and (c) AFt at
the hole.

Fig. 10. (a) Results of element analysis in SEM test, (b) Results of element analysis in SEM test.

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C. Xu et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e03221

Fig. 11. (a) Comparison of compressive strength between standard curing and dry–wet cycle with foam content of 1 %, (b) Comparison of
compressive strength between standard curing and dry-wet cycle with foam content of 2 %, (c)Comparison of compressive strength between
standard curing and dry–wet cycle with foam content of 3 %, (d) Comparison of compressive strength between standard curing and dry-wet cycle
with foam content of 1 %, (e) Corrosion resistance coefficient of foam content of 2 %, and (f) Corrosion resistance coefficient of foam content
of 3 %.

Table 4
Nonlinear curve fitting.
Foam content (%) Curve fitting equation

Maintenance specimens of the same age Specimen of sulfate attack

1 x (x − 34)2
y = 91.1 · e6.3 + 18.9 10.5 − 2
y = 24.3 + √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅e 54.7
7.4 II/2
2 x x
y = 18.05 · e 15.8 + 13.2 y = 93.8 · e 4.8 + 18.4
− −

3 (x − 36.3)2 (x − 34.7)2
66.2 2 20.1 2
184.96 73.96
− −
y = 11.03 − √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅e y = 11.28 − √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅e
13.6 II/2 8.65 II/2

4. Conclusions

This paper explored the potential of using waste wood from bio-based materials as fillers for producing WFC. Several properties
were analyzed, including the dry density, softening coefficient, thermal conductivity, resistance to chloride ion penetration, frost
resistance and resistance to sulfate attack. The specific results are as follows:

1. WA and foam effectively reduced concrete bulk weight, thereby lowering structural deadweight. Second, with increasing WA,
softening coefficient gradually increased and stabilized, enhancing WFC water resistance. However, WFC internal pores were
gradually densified with increasing foam admixture, decreasing softening coefficient and deteriorating water resistance.
2. Waste wood has a high specific heat capacity and absorbs and releases more heat per unit mass, and the addition of waste wood
increased the air content in the concrete, causing the foam to produce more tandem pores, which resulted in a negative correlation
between the WA and foam admixture and the thermal conductivity.

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C. Xu et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 20 (2024) e03221

3. WA in WFC had a high water retention rate, which was slowly released during the hardening process of concrete to promote the
hydration of the concrete matrix, improving resistance to chloride ion penetration, freezing resistance and sulfate attack. However,
WA led to an increase in porosity within the WFC, and the incorporation of foam caused an increase in the expansion of the WFC.
This reduced the WFC’s resistance to chloride ion permeability, freezing resistance and sulfate attack.

Funding

National Natural Science Foundation of China [grant numbers 52078261]; Shandong Provincial Science and Technology Support
Program [grant numbers 2021SFGC0201-04]; Shandong Provincial Natural Science Foundation [grant numbers ZR2021ME110];
Qingdao Natural Science Foundation Youth Project [grant numbers 23-2-1-105-zyyd-jch] and Shandong Province City level School
Enterprise Cooperation Project [grant numbers 2423272].

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Chenyang Xu: Writing–original draft, Writing–review&editing, Methodology. Qiuyi Li: Supervision, Funding acquisition. Peihan
Wang: Validation, Conceptualization. Yuanxin Guo: Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding acquisition.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data Availability

The data will be provided to the corresponding authors according to reasonable requirements.

Acknowledgments

None

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