NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Tran Thi Ngoc Dung – Huynh Quang Linh – Physics A2 HCMUT 2016
OUTLINE
• BINDING ENERGY and BINDING ENERGY PER
NUCLEON
• NUCLEAR FORCE
• RADIOACTIVITY-ALPHA, BETA, GAMMA DECAY
• RADIOACTIVE CARBON DATING
• NUCLEAR REACTIONS - FISSION, FUSION
NUCLEAR COMPONENTS
Nucleus contains nucleons: protons and neutrons
• Atomic number Z = number of protons
• Neutron number N = number of neutrons
• Mass number A = number of nucleons = Z + N
• Each element has unique Z value
• Isotopes of element have same Z, but different N and
A values

1 2 3
1 H, 1 H, 1 H
Notion: A X Isotopes 16
O ,17
O ,18
Z 8 8 8O
RADIUS of a NUCLEUS

1/ 3
R ≈ R oA
A=N+Z: Mass Number

−15
R o = 1.2 ×10 m = 1.2fm
NUCLEAR DENSITY
• All nuclei have approximately the same mass density

17 3
ρ = 2.3 × 10 kg / m
Volume of the nucleus: :
4 3 4 1/ 3 3 4 3
V = πR = π(R o A ) = πR o A.
3 3 3
Mass density
M nucleus mpA 1.67 × 10 −27
ρ= ≈ = = 2.3.1017 kg / m 3
4 3 4 3 4
πR πR o .A π × (1.2 × 10 −15 ) 3
3 3 3
 Nucleus Charge and Mass
Particle Charge Mass (kg) Mass (u) Mass (MeV/c2)
Proton +e 1.6726 x10−27 1.007 276 938.28
Neutron 0 1.6750 x10−27 1.008 665 939.57
Electron −e 9.109 x 10−31 5.486x10−4 0.511

• Unified mass unit, u, defined using Carbon 12

• Mass of 1 atom of 12C ≡ 12 u

−27 2
1 u = 1.660539 ×10 kg = 931.494 MeV / c
NUCLEAR SPINS
• Protons and neutrons are also spin ½ particle.
• The magnitude of Spin angular momentum S of a nucleon:

1 1 3
S = ! s(s + 1) = ! (
2 2
+ 1) = !
4
1
• The z component is Sz = ± !
2

In addition to the spin angular momentum, there may be

orbital angular momentum associated with their motions
within the nucleus.
The total angular momentum !⃗ of the nucleus is the vector
sum of the individual spin and orbital angular momenta of all
the nucleons.
Total angular momentum
! ! !
• Total angular momentum of 1 nucleon: J i = L i + Si

• Total angular momentum of the nucleus:

! ! ! !
J = ∑ J i = ∑ L i + ∑ Si
i i i
• The magnitude: of nuclear angular momentum:

J = j( j + 1)!
• and z component:
J z = m j! (m j = − j,− j + 1,..., j − 1, j)
Total angular momentum j=nuclear spin
• When A is even, j is an integer: 0,1,2,3
• When A is odd, j is a half integer: ½, 3/2…
• All nuclides for which both Z and N are even have J=0,
which suggests that pairing of particles with opposite spin
components may be an important consideration in nuclear
structure.
• The total nuclear angular momentum number j is usually
called the nuclear spin
Magnetic Moment
• Associated with nuclear angular momentum is a
magnetic moment.
e!
• Nuclear magneton: µ n = = 5.05078 × 10 − 27 J / T
2m p

• The z component of the spin magnetic moment of

the proton:
µsz proton
= 2.7928µ n
• The neutron, which has zero charge, has a spin
magnetic moment. The z component of the spin
magnetic moment of the neutron:
µ sz neutron
= 1.9130µ n
Spin magnetic moment #⃗
• The proton has a positive charge; its spin magnetic
moment #⃗ and spin angular momentum %⃗ are parallel.
• The neutron has no charge, its spin magnetic moment #⃗
and spin angular momentum %⃗ are opposite ( as for a
negative charge distribution)
• The magnetic moment of an entire nucleus is typically a
few nuclear magnetons.
• When a nucleus is placed in an external magnetic field &,
there is an interaction energy :
' = −#⃗. & = −#+&
U ↑↑ = − µ z B = −(2.7923)(3.152 ×10 −8 eV / T )(2.3T ) = −2.025 ×10 −7 eV
U ↑↓ = µ z B = 2.025 ×10 −7 eV
ΔE = 2.025 ×10 −7 eV − (-2.025 ×10 −7 eV ) = 4.05 ×10 −7 eV
hc 1.24 (eV m) 10-6 m10 −6 m
λ= = = 3.06 ×
ΔE 4.05 ×10 −7 (eV )
 Binding Energy
• The mass of nucleus is less than the mass of total
nucleons.
• The mass defect: ΔM=Zmp+(A-Z)mn-M
Where, M: Mass of the nucleus
Or
A
ΔM = ZMH + Nmn − Z M
• Where, MH is the mass of Z protons and Z
electrons combining as Z neutral atoms of 11 H to
balance with Z electrons included in AZ M neutral
atom.
BINDING ENERGY
Binding energy is energy required to separate
nucleus into its constituents
2 A 2
E B = ΔM.c = (ZMH + Nm n − Z M).c

Binding energy per nucleon:

EB
ε=
A
 Atomic mass, u
No Element Symbol Z 1u=1.660.10-27 kg
(1 u)c2 = 931.5 MeV
1. Neutron n 0 1.008 665
2. Hydrogen 1H 1 1.007 825

ΔM = 28 × 1.007825 + 34 *1.008665 − 61.928349 = 0.585361u

E B = ΔM.c 2 = 0.585361u ×931.5 MeV / u = 545.3MeV
E B 545.3MeV
ε= = = 8.795MeV / nucleon
A 62
Binding energy per nucleon
All stable nuclides have
binding energies in the
range of 7-9 MeV per
nucleon.

The difference between

the terms isotope and
nuclide can be confusing,
and they are often used
interchangeably. The term
nuclide is more generic
and is used when referring
to nuclei of different
elements. Isotope is best
used when referring to
several different nuclides
of the same element.
 The NUCLEAR FORCE
The force that binds protons and neutrons together in the
nucleus, despite the electrical repulsion of the protons, is
call nuclear force. It is an example of strong interaction.
Some characteristics
a) Nuclear force has short range, within 10-15 m.
b) Nuclear force does not depend on charge: the binding
n-n, p-p, p-n is the same.
c) The nuclear force has saturation property. A nucleon
cannot interact with all the other nucleon in the nucleus,
but only with those few in its immediate vicinity
d) The nuclear force depends on the spins of the
nucleons. The nuclear force favors binding of pair of
protons or neutrons with opposite spins and between a
pair of protons and a pair of neutrons, each pair having
opposite spins.
NUCLEAR STABILITY and RADIOACTIVITY
Segre chart showing neutron number
For low mass number, the and proton number for stable nuclides
numbers of protons and
neutrons are
approximately equal, N≈Z.
The ratio N/Z increases
with A, up to about 1.6 at
large mass numbers,
because of the increasing
influence of the electrical
repulsion of the protons.
No nuclide with A>209 or
Z>93 is stable.
 Radioactivity
• Unstable nuclei decay to more stable nuclei
• Can emit 3 types of radiation in the process

α particles : 42 He nuclei
β particles : e − or e +
γ rays : high energy photons
A positron (e+) is the antiparticle
of the electron (e−)
Fig. 29.5, p. 962
 1. Radioactivity Decay law
− λt
• N (t): number of radioactive
nuclei in a sample at time t.
N = Noe
• No: number of radioactive
nuclei in a sample at time 0 ⎛ t ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
• λ: decay constant No T1 / 2
• The half life T1/2: is the time
= 2 ⎝ ⎠
required for the number of N( t )
radioactive nuclei to ln 2 0.693
decrease to one-half the λ= =
original number. T1 / 2 T1 / 2
• The mean lifetime Tmean
1
Tmean =
λ
Decay Constant and Half-Life
 2. ACTIVITY
dN −λt −λt
H=− = λN o e = λN = H o e
dt
• ACTIVITY is the number of decay per unit time
• Ho activity at time t=0.
• The SI unit of activity is Bq (becquerel).
1Bq=1decay/s
• Curi (Ci) : 1 Ci is equal to the activity of 1gram of
radium
10
1Ci = 3.7 ×10 Bq
 1
a) Tmean =
λ
ln 2 0.693
λ= = = 2.95 × 10 − 8 s −1
T1 / 2 272day × 24h / day × 3600s / h
1 7
Tmean = −8
= 3 .39 × 10 s = 392days
2.95 × 10
b ) H = λN
H 2 × 10 − 6 × 3.7 × 1010 12
N= = − 8
= 2 .51 × 10 nuclei
λ 2.95 × 10
− λt − 6 − 2.95×10 −8 × 365× 24× 3600
c) H = H o e = 2 × 10 e = 0.788µCi
 Alpha (α ) Decay
• Unstable nucleus emits
α particle (i.e., a helium
nucleus) spontaneously
• Mass of parent is greater
than mass of daughter
plus α particle
• Most of KE carried away
by α particle Fig 29.7, p. 966

A A−4 4
Z X→ Z − 2Y+ 2 He
 Beta(β)Decay
• Involves conversion of proton to neutron or vice-versa
• Involves the weak nuclear force
• KE carried away by electron/antineutrino or
positron/neutrino pair
• Neutrinos: q = 0, m < 1 eV/c2, spin ½, very weak
interaction with matter

1 1 − A A −
0 n →1 p + e +ν Z X→ Z +1Y + e +ν
1 1 + A A +
1 p→ 0 n + e +ν Z X→ Z −1Y + e +ν
 Gamma (γ) Decay
• Following radioactive decay, nucleus may be left
in an excited state
• Undergoes nuclear de-excitation:
protons/neutrons move to lower energy level
• Nucleus emits high energy photons (γ rays)
• No change in A or Z results
12 12
5 B → C* +e +ν
6
−

12 12
6 C* → C + γ6
Radioactive Carbon Dating
Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14
dating) is a method for determining the age of an object containing
organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon (14C), a
radioactive isotope of carbon.
 Radioactive
Carbon Dating
14
• Cosmic rays create 14
C
12
Constant –12
ratio of C/ C
(1.3×10 ) in atmosphere
• Living organisms have
same ratio
• Dead organisms do not (no
longer absorb C)
14
• T½ of C = 5730 yr
• Measure decay rates, R

− λt ln (R R0 )
R = R0 e ⇒t =−
λ
 m
H = λN o e − λt = λ N A e − λt Note: R and H are the same
µ
N A − λt
m=1g,
m = 1g,H
R=λ e = 0.255e − λt Bq / g = Roe − λt Bg
Bq/g
/g
µ
0.255T1 / 2 0.255 × 5730 × 365 × 24 × 3600
Number of C(14)per gram : N o = =
0.693 0.693
10
= 6.65 × 10 atomsC(14) / gram
12 1
Number of C in 1g :: N = x 6.023 × 10 23 = 5.02 × 10 22 / g
12
10
6.65 × 10
ratio = = 1.32 × 10 −12
5.02 × 10 22
0.5gCarbon − > 174decay / h.
H = 0.5 × R o exp(−λt )(Bq)
T H 5730 y 174 / 3600
t = − 1 / 2 ln( )=− ln( ) = 8019 y
0.693 0.5 × R o 0.693 0.5 × 0.255
Natural Radioactivity
• Many radioactive elements occur in nature. For example, you
are very slightly radioactive because of unstable nuclides such
as carbon(C14) and potassium (K40) that are present
throughout your body.
• The decaying nucleus is usually called the parent nucleus; the
resulting nucleus is the daughter nucleus. When a radioactive
nucleus decays, the daughter nucleus may also be unstable. In
this case a series of successive decays occurs until a stable
configuration is reached.
• Several such series are found in nature. The most abundant
radioactive nuclide found on earth is the uranium isotope
which undergoes a series of 14 decays, including eight α
emissions and six β- emissions, terminating at a stable isotope
of lead, 206 Pb.
 Natural Radioactivity
• Four radioactive series of naturally occurring
radioactivity
• Nuclear power plants use enriched uranium
• Other series artificially produced
Alpha Decay

240 236 4
94 Pu → U + He
92 2
Plutonium
Beta Decay

228 0 228
88 Ra → e+ Ac
−1 89
Actinium
Radium
Beta Plus Decay - Positron

230 0 230
91 Pa → e+ Th 1 90
Protactinium Thorium
Beta Plus Decay Application - Positron
emission tomography (PET)
Positron emission tomography
(PET) is a nuclear medicine
imaging technique which
produces a three-dimensional
image or picture of functional
processes in the body. The
system detects pairs of gamma
rays emitted indirectly by a
positron-emitting radionuclide
(tracer), which is introduced into
the body on a biologically active
molecule. Images of tracer
concentration in 3-dimensional
space within the body are then
reconstructed by computer
analysis.
Gamma Decay

240 240 0
94 Pu → Pu + γ 94 0
Plutonium
Gamma Decay Applications
Gamma rays are the most dangerous type of radiation
as they are very penetrating. They can be used to kill
living organisms and sterilize medical equipment
before use. They can be used in CT Scans and
radiation therapy.

Gamma Rays are used to view stowaways inside of a truck. This

technology is used by the Department of Homeland Security at many ports
of entry to the US.
 Nuclear Reactions
• Accelerators can • Atomic and mass
generate particle numbers (Z and A) must
energies up to 1 TeV remain balanced
• Bombard a nucleus with • Mass difference before
energetic particles and after reaction
• Nucleus captures the determines Q value
particle – Exothermic: Q > 0
• Result is fission or fusion – Endothermic: Q < 0
• Endothermic requires
incoming particle to have
⎛ m⎞ KEmin
KE min = ⎜1 + ⎟ Q | |
⎝ M⎠
Reaction energy
A + B− > C + D
Q = ( M A + M B − M C − M D )c 2
When Q is positive, the total mass decreases and the total kinetic
energy increases. Such a reaction is called an exothermic reaction.
When Qis negative, the mass increases and the kinetic energy decreases, and
the reaction is called an endothermic.
In an endothermic reaction the reaction cannot occur unless the initial kinetic
energy in the center-of-mass reference frame is at least as great as |Q|. That is,
there is a threshold energy, the minimum kinetic energy to make an endothermic
reaction go.

⎛ m⎞
KE min = ⎜1 + ⎟ |Q|
⎝ M⎠
 Fusion and Fission
Fusion and Fission

Nuclear fusion and nuclear

fission are different types of
reactions that release energy
due to the presence of high-
powered atomic bonds between
particles found within a nucleus.
In fission, an atom is split into
two or more smaller, lighter
atoms. Fusion, in contrast,
occurs when two or more
smaller atoms fuse together,
creating a larger, heavier atom.
Fusion

2 3 4 1
1 H + H → He+ n
1 2 0
nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple like-charged atomic nuclei
join together to form a heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the release or
absorption of energy.
Significant Nuclear Reactions - Fission

Barium Krypton
1
0 n+ U → Ba + Kr +301 n + energy
235
92
141
56
92
36
Nuclear fission differs from other forms of radioactive decay in that it can be
harnessed and controlled via a chain reaction: free neutrons released by
each fission event can trigger yet more events, which in turn release more
neutrons and cause more fissions. The most common nuclear fuels are 235U
(the isotope of uranium with an atomic mass of 235 and of use in nuclear
reactors) and 239Pu (the isotope of plutonium with an atomic mass of 239).
These fuels break apart into a bimodal range of chemical elements with
atomic masses centering near 95 and 135 u (fission products).
Fission Bomb
One class of nuclear weapon, a fission
bomb is a fission reactor designed to
liberate as much energy as possible
as rapidly as possible
A nuclear reactor is a device in which
nuclear chain fission reactions are
initiated, controlled, and sustained at a
steady rate.

Nuclear power plant