NUCLEI

Introduction:
The idea that atoms are
indivisible changed in 1896
when the French physicist
Henri Becquerel discovered
that some unused
photographic plates had been
exposed by particles coming
from a piece of uranium.
Understanding how atoms can
change requires looking deep
into the structure of the atom
—into the atomic nucleus.
 Composition of Nucleus
Nuclei contain positively charged protons and
neutral neutrons. Nuclei are characterized by the
number of protons and neutrons they contain.

Nucleon-
protons and
neutrons are
collectively
called
 The Constituents and Structure of Nuclei
The notation for a particular nucleus of element
X is written:

Examples:
Masses and charges of atomic particles:
 Atomic Masses
The atomic mass unit, u, is defined as the 1/12th
of the mass of atom.

This mass may also be written in terms of

MeV/c2, using E = mc2:
 Atomic Masses
Determined by the process of WEIGHTED AVERAGING
The average atomic mass on the periodic table
represents the average mass of the naturally
occurring mixture of isotopes.
Natural
Isotope Isotopic mass (amu)
abundance (%)
12
C 12.00000 98.93
13
C 13.003355 1.07

Average mass (C) = (0.9893)(12.00000 amu) + (0.0107)(13.003355

amu) = 12.01 amu
Which isotope has a greater abundance naturally, bromine-79 or
bromine-81?
Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.53 percent 35Cl,
which has an atomic mass of 34.96885 u, and
24.47 percent 37Cl, which has an atomic mass of
36.96590 u.

Therefore by weighted average we get

A.M = (0.753x34.968) +( 0.2497x36.965)
A.M = 35.47 U
Size of Nucleus:
Nucleus does not have a sharp or well-defined boundary.
However, the radius of nucleus can be given by

R = R0 A⅓ where R0 = 1.2 x 10-15 m is a constant which is the same for all

nuclei and A is the mass number of the nucleus.
Radius of nucleus ranges from 1 fm to 10 fm.
Nuclear Volume, V = (4/3) π R3 = (4/3) π R03 A
VαA
Nucleus Density:
Mass of nucleus, M = A amu = A x 1.66 x 10-27 kg
Nuclear Volume, V = (4/3) π R3 = (4/3) π R03 A
4 x 22 x (1.2 x 10-15)3 A m3
=
3 7
= 7.24 x 10-45 A m3
Nucleus Density, ρ = M / V = 2.29 x 1017 kg / m3
Discussion:
1. The nuclear density does not depend upon mass number. So, all
the nuclei possess nearly the same density.
2. The nuclear density has extremely large value. Such high
densities are found in white dwarf stars which contain mainly
nuclear matter.
3. The nuclear density is not uniform throughout the nucleus. It has
maximum value at the centre and decreases gradually as we move
away from the centre of the nucleus.
4. The nuclear radius is the distance from the centre of the nucleus
at which the density of nuclear matter decreases to one-half of its
maximum value at the centre.
Mass – Energy Relation:
According to Newton’s second law of motion, force acting on a body is defined as the rate of change of
momentum.

d dv dm
F= (mv) = m +v
dt dt dt
If this force F displaces the body by a distance dx, its energy increases by
dv dm
dK = F.dx = m dx + v dx
dt dt
dx dx
dK = m dv + v dm
dt dt
dK = m v dv + v2 dm ………… (1)

According to Einstein’s relation of relativistic mass,

m0
m=
[1 – (v2 / c2)]½
Squaring and manipulating, m2c2 – m2v2 = m02c2
Differentiating (with m0 and c as constants)

c2 2m dm – m2 2v dv – v2 2m dm = 0
or c2 dm – mv dv – v2 dm = 0

c2 dm = mv dv + v2 dm ……………..(2)

From (1) and (2), dK = dm c2

If particle is accelerated from rest to a velocity v, let its mass m 0 increases to m.

Integrating,
K m
Total increase in K.E. = dK = c2 dm
0 m0

K = (m – m0) c2 or K + m0 c2 = m c2

Here m0c2 is the energy associated with the rest mass of the body and K is the kinetic energy.

Thus, the total energy of the body is given by E = m c2

This is Einstein’s mass - energy equivalence relation.
 Mass –Energy and Nuclear Binding energy
It was believed that conservation of mass and energy are two different things
conserved in a reaction.
But Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy and are inter
convertible.
E = mC2

The mass of any stable nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of the protons
and neutrons it contains. This difference, multiplied by c2, is called the binding
energy, and is another consequence of relativity.
 Mass Defect:
It is the difference between the rest mass of the nucleus and the
sum of the masses of the nucleons composing a nucleus is known
as mass defect.
Δm = [ Zmp + (A – Z) mn ] - M
Mass defect per nucleon is called packing
fraction.
Binding Energy:

It is the energy required to break up a nucleus into its constituent

parts and place them at an infinite distance from one another.

B.E = Δm c2
 Nuclear Binding energy
Considering Oxygen nucleus which has 8 protons and 8
Neutrons
Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866 u
Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727 u
Mass of 8 electron = 8 × 0.0005486u
Actual mass of oxygen Nucleus =16-0.0043888=15.9956u
Therefore the expected mass of
8O = 8 × 2.01593 u = 16.132 u.
16

But Experimental value was 15.9956 u. Which is 0.1364

U short(126.9 MeV). Which mean this difference in mass
equivalence acts as binding energy.
Eb = ∆Mc2
Binding energy per nucleon
The curve of binding energy is the binding energy per
nucleon:
 The Constituents and
Structure of Nuclei
Since the strong
nuclear force is short
range, atoms with more
protons must have
proportionally more
neutrons in order to
remain stable.
 Radioactive Isotopes
Isotopes of an element are chemically identical but
differ in the number of neutrons.
If there is a difference in the number of electrons and
protons, the atom is charged and is called an ion.
An ionized atom is one that has a different number of
electrons than nuclear protons.
• The number of neutrons has no bearing on the number of electrons the
atom may have or on the chemistry of an atom.
• The common form of hydrogen has a bare proton as its nucleus.
• There can be different kinds, or isotopes, of hydrogen, however, because
there can be different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus.
• An isotope is a form of an element having a particular number of
neutrons in the nuclei of its atoms.
We distinguish between the different isotopes of hydrogen with the symbols

, , and .

Note:
Gold has 32 isotopes ranging A=173 to A = 204.
 Information from the graph
Iron has a mass number of 56 and is one of the most stable of all the elements.
We say that iron has a high binding energy per nucleon (8.8 MeV).
Elements with lower and higher mass numbers per nucleon are less stable.
In fission, an unstable nucleus is converted into more stable nuclei with a
smaller total mass. This difference in mass, the mass defect, is the binding
energy that is released.
In the graph elements having mass no from 1 to at20 the stability fluctuates
some at peak indicating high stability and negative peak indicating low stability.
The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-
proton is approximately the same. The nuclear force does not depend on the
electric charge.
 Radioactivity
The changing of one element to another is called transmutation. If it
happens naturally we call them as Natural transmutation and if not its
Artificial transmutation
The basic process in beta decay converts a neutron into a
proton and an electron:

Therefore, a nucleus that decays via beta decay loses a

neutron and gains a proton.
Uranium-238 has 92 protons and 146 neutrons. The nucleus loses
two protons and two neutrons—an alpha particle

Note:
A nucleus may emit gamma radiation along with an alpha
particle or a beta particle.
Gamma emission does not affect the mass number or the
atomic number.
Both alpha and emission is not possible for an element
simultaneously.
 Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission occurs when

a heavy nucleus splits into
two lighter ones, especially
after capturing a neutron.
The lighter nuclei do not
need so many neutrons, so
there are typically extra
neutrons emitted from the
reaction.
 Nuclear Fission

This emission of multiple neutrons can lead to a

chain reaction, either controlled or uncontrolled.
 Nuclear Fusion

Very light nuclei can combine to form a heavier

nucleus with greater binding energy; energy is
therefore released. This can only occur at
extremely high temperatures, as the nuclei must
be moving fast enough to overcome the electrical
repulsion.
Such temperatures are available in the center of
the Sun and other stars; nuclear fusion is what
powers them.
 Nuclear Fusion
The nuclear fusion process in the Sun begins with two protons
fusing to form deuterium, and then fusing with a third proton to
form helium-3.

After that, a helium-4 nucleus is formed in one of

the following two ways:

Considerable energy is emitted in this interaction.

Nuclear Fusion:

Energy Source of Sun:

Proton – Proton Cycle:
1H + 1H1 → H2 + e0 + 0.4 MeV
1
1 1

H1
1 + 1 H2 → 2 He3 + 5.5 MeV

He3 +
2 He3 →
2 He4 + 2 1H1 + 12.9 MeV
2

Energy Source of Star:

Carbon - Nitrogen Cycle:
C12
6 + H1
1 → N13 + γ
7 (energy)
N13
7 → 6 C13 + 1e0 (positron)
C13
6 + H1
1 → N14 + γ
7 (energy)
N14
7 + H1
1 → O15 + γ
8 (energy)
O15
8 → 7 N15 + 1e0 (positron)
N15
7 + H1
1 → C12 + 2He4 + γ (energy)
6

End of Atomic Nucleus

 Nuclear Reactor
Main types of nuclear reactor
1. Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
2. Pressurized Heavy water reactor (PHWR)
3. Boiling water reactor (BWR)
4. Advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR)
5. Light water graphite-moderated reactor (LWGR)
6. Fast neutron reactor (FNR)
Note:
As of November 2020, India has 22
nuclear reactors in operation in 7 nuclear power
plants, with a total installed capacity of 7,380 MW.
 Working of reactor
Fuel
Uranium is the basic fuel. Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) are
arranged in tubes to form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel
assemblies in the reactor core.* In a 1000 MWe class PWR there might
be 51,000 fuel rods with over 18 million pellets.

Moderator
Material in the core which slows down the neutrons released from
fission so that they cause more fission. It is usually water, but may be
heavy water or graphite.

Coolant
A fluid circulating through the core so as to transfer the heat
from it. In light water reactors the water moderator functions
also as primary coolant. Except in BWRs, there is secondary
coolant circuit where the water becomes steam.
Revision
The gravitational force between a H-atom and
another particle of mass m will be given by
Newton’s law:
How much energy will approximately be released if all the
atoms of 1 kg of deuterium could undergo fusion?
[Assume energy released per deuterium nucleus is 4 MeV]