NUCLEI

Nucleons:-
Protons and neutrons which are present in the nuclei of atoms are collectively known as
nucleons
Atomic number ( Z ):-
The number of protons in the nucleus is called atomic number.
Mass number ( A ):-
The total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus is called mass number
Nuclear mass:-
The total mass of protons and neutrons present in a nucleus is called nuclear mass
Nuclide:-
It is a specific nucleus of an atom characterized by its atomic number and mass number.
𝐴
Eg:- 𝑍 𝑋
Properties of Proton:-
 Positively charged particle
 Magnitude of charge =1.6 x 10-19 C
 Rest mass = 1.6726 x 10-27 kg
1
 Spin =+
2

Properties of Neutrons:-
 Posses no charge
 Mass = 1.6748 x 10-27 kg
 Very high penetrating power
 Low ionizing power
 Neutron inside the nucleus is stable and outside, it is unstable
Isotopes:-

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 The atoms of an element having same atomic number but different mass number are
called isotopes. The chemical properties of the isotopes of an element are identical.
Eg:- 11𝐻 , 21𝐻 , 31𝐻
Isobars:-
The atoms of elements having same mass number but different atomic number are
called isobars. They have different chemical properties but may be the same physical
properties.
Eg:- 31𝐻 , 32𝐻𝑒
Isotones:-
The atoms of the elements whose nuclei have the same number of neutrons are called
isotones.
Eg:- 49𝐵𝑒 , 105𝐵
Size of Nucleus:-
It has been measured with the help of variety of experiments involving scattering of
particles such as neutrons, protons etc. From these experiments, it is found that the volume of
the nucleus is directly proportional to the number of nucleons constituting the nucleus.
If R be the radius of nucleus having mass number A, then
4 3
𝜋𝑅 𝛼 𝐴
3
1
i.e. 𝑅𝛼𝐴3
1
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝐴3
Where Ro= 1.2 x 10-15m=1.2 fm
Nuclear Density:-
The mass per unit volume of a nucleus is called nuclear density.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
Let the number of nucleons in the nucleus = A
Mass of each nucleon = 1.66 x 10-27 kg

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Therefore mass of nucleus = A x 1.66 x 10-27 kg
4 4
Volume of nucleus = 𝜋𝑅 3 = 𝜋𝑅0 3𝐴
3 3

Therefore,
A x 1.66 x 10−27 kg
𝜌= ≈ 2.38 𝑥 1017 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
4
𝜋𝑅 3 𝐴
3 0
Therefore nuclear density is independent of mass number A.
Nuclear Force:-
It is a very strong attractive force. It gives rise to a negative potential energy which is
observed as a loss in mass.
Properties:-
 It is a short range force.(It will become negligible if the distance between two nucleon is
greater than 4.2 fm )
 It is charge independent. ( n-p, n-n, p-p—all attractive in nature )
 It is the strongest force. ( Fg : Fe : Fn = 1 : 1036 : 1038)
 It is spin dependent. ( greater for parallel spin )
 It is a saturated force. ( A nucleon inside the nucleus does not experience nuclear force
due to all the other nucleons. It experiences only due to its nearest neighboring
nucleons.
 It is a non-central force.
 It has a small component of repulsive force( If the distance decreases to 0.5 x 10-15 m, it
changes suddenly to repulsive in nature )
Mass-Energy Relation:-
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
Total energy = the rest mass energy + the kinetic energy of the particle.
𝐸 = 𝑚0 𝑐 2 + 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑇)
𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑚0𝑐 2 + 𝑇
𝑇 = (𝑚 − 𝑚0)𝑐 2
𝑇 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2
Atomic Mass Unit:-

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 1 𝑡ℎ
One amu is defined as of the mass of carbon-12 ( 126𝐶) atom.
12

1 12
1𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 𝑔
12 6.023 𝑥 1023
= 1.6604 𝑥 10−24 𝑔 = 1.6604 𝑥 10−27 𝑘𝑔
Energy Equivalent to 1 amu:-
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
= 1.6604 𝑥 10−27 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 (3𝑥108𝑚𝑠 −1 )2 = 1.484 𝑥 10−10 𝐽
1.484 𝑥 10−10
= −19
𝑒𝑉 = 931.48 𝑥 106 𝑒𝑉 = 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
1.6 𝑥 10
Mass Defect: -
It is defined as the difference between the mass of the constituent nucleons of the
nucleus in free-state and the mass of the nucleus.
Consider a nucleus of mass M having Z protons and (A-Z) neutrons.
Let mass of proton = mp and that of neutron = mn
The total mass of proton =mp x Z
The total mass of neutron = mn x (A-Z)

Therefore, mass defect ∆𝐦 = {𝐦𝐩 𝐙 + 𝐦𝐧 (𝐀 − 𝐙)} − 𝐌

Binding Energy of the Nucleus: -

The total energy required to disintegrate the nucleus into its constituent particles is
called binding energy.
Or
It is the energy equivalent to the mass defect of the nucleus.
∆𝐸𝑏 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2 𝐽 = ∆𝑚 𝑥 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
= [{𝐦𝐩 𝐙 + 𝐦𝐧 (𝐀 − 𝐙)} − 𝐌]𝑥931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉

Binding Energy per Nucleon:-

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 The average energy required to release a nucleon free from the nucleus is
calledbinding energy per nucleon.
∆𝐸𝑏 ∆𝑚 𝑥 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
∆𝐸𝑏𝑛 = =
𝐴 𝐴
Significance of Binding Energy per Nucleon:-
It determines the stability of the nucleus. It is directly proportional to the stability
of the nucleus.

From the graph,

 Some nuclei with mass number less than 20 have large ∆𝐸𝑏𝑛 , than their neighbouring
nuclei.
 For mass number greater than 40, ∆𝐸𝑏𝑛 increases gradually till it attains a maximum
value 8.8 MeV per nucleon. Thus IRON is a stable element.
 For nuclei having mass number greater than 56, ∆𝐸𝑏𝑛 gradually decreases.
Conclusion
 ∆𝐸𝑏𝑛 has low value for both the light and heavy nuclei, so they are unstable.
 The intermediate nuclei have large value of ∆𝐸𝑏𝑛 , so they are more stable.
 ∆𝐸𝑏𝑛 of light nuclei having mass number=4,8,12,16 and 20 is more than their
neighbours.
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Nuclear Stability:-
There are two forces
1. Electrostatic force of repulsion between protons which is a long-range force.
2. The nuclear force which is short range.
In small nucleus, the nuclear force is large as compared to electrostatic force, so
it is stable.
In large nucleus, the electrostatic force of repulsion is large as compared to the
nuclear force, so it is unstable.
Nuclear Reactions:-
The process by which the identity of a nucleus is changed when it is bombarded by an
energetic particle is called nuclear reactions.
X + a → Y + b
Parent nucleus Incident particle Daughter nucleus outgoing particle
( Reactants ) ( Products )

Q-value or Energy of Nuclear Reactions:

The energy absorbed or released during the nuclear reaction is called Q-value or Energy
of Nuclear Reactions.
Or
It is defined as the difference between the kinetic energy of products and reactants.

Nuclear Energy:-
The energy released during a nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy.
Nuclear Fission:-
It is the process of splitting a heavy nucleus into two nuclei of comparable masses along
with the emission of large amount of energy.
1 141
0𝑛 + 235
92𝑈 →
236
92𝑈 → 56𝐵𝑎
92
+ 36𝐾𝑟 + 3 10𝑛 + 𝑄
𝑄 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2 = (236.133 − 235.911)931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 206.682 𝑀𝑒𝑉

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Chain Reaction:-
A nuclear reaction which produces particles that started the reaction originally is called a
chain reaction.
Two types:
1. Controlled chain reaction and
2. Uncontrolled chain reaction.

Nuclear Reactor:-

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 It is device in which nuclear fission is maintained as a self-supporting yet controlled chain
reaction.
Main parts of Nuclear Reactor:
1) Nuclear Fuel:
𝟐𝟑𝟓
It is the material that can be fissioned by neutrons.Eg: 𝑼, 𝟐𝟑𝟐𝑻𝒉
2) Moderator:
It is used to slow down the fast-moving neutrons. Eg: Graphite, Heavy Water
3) Control Rods:
It is used to control chain reaction and maintain a stable rate of reaction. This material
controls the number of neutrons available for fission. Eg: Cadmium rods.
4) Coolant:
It removes the heat generated due to fission in the reactor. The coolant must have
high boiling point and high specific heat. Eg: Water, CO2, Nitrogen, Liquid Sodium.
5) Shielding:
To protect from radiation, the reactor core is surrounded by a thick concrete wall
called shielding
Nuclear Fusion:-
It is the process in which two light nuclei combine to form a nucleus with large mass number
along with simultaneous release of large amount of energy is called nuclear fusion.
2
1𝐻 + 21𝐻 → 32𝐻𝑒 + 10𝑛 + 𝑄
4 11𝐻 → 42𝐻𝑒 + 2 +10𝑒 + 2𝜈 + 𝑄
Fusion is one of the sources of energy in sun and stars. These fusions take place via two
different cycles.
Proton-Proton Cycle:
1
1H + 11H → 21H + +10e + 𝜈 + 𝑄1

1
1𝐻 + 21𝐻 → 32𝐻𝑒 + 𝛾 + 𝑄2

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 3
2𝐻𝑒 + 32𝐻𝑒 → 42𝐻𝑒 + 2 11𝐻 + 𝑄3

Carbon -Nitrogen Cycle:

12
6𝐶 + 11𝐻 → 13
7𝑁 + 𝑄1
13 13
7𝑁 → 6𝐶 + +10𝑒 + 𝜈
13
6𝐶 + 11𝐻 → 14
7𝑁 + 𝑄2
14
7𝑁 + 11𝐻 → 15
8𝑂 + 𝑄3
15 15
8𝑂 → 7𝑁 + +10𝑒 + 𝜈
15
7𝑁 + 11𝐻 → 12
6𝐶 + 42𝐻𝑒
Difference between Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion:-
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
01 A heavy nucleus when excited gets split Two lighter nuclei fuse together to form a
up into two smaller nuclei of nearby heavier nucleus.
comparable masses.
02 The condition of high temperature and The condition of high temperature and
pressure are not necessary for its pressure are necessary for its occurrence
occurrence.
03 Neutrons are the link particles of this Protons are the link particles of this
process. process.
04 It is a quick process. It occurs in several steps so there is
sufficient time gap between initial and final
steps.
05 Energy available per nucleon is very small Energy available per nucleon is large about
about 0.85 MeV 06.75 MeV
06 It produces very harmful radioactive The products of nuclear fusion are
waste. harmless.
07 The stock of fissionable fuel is limited. The fuel required for it is available in plenty.

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