NUCLEI

PRESENTED BY
SUNITA KHIRBAT
PGT PHYSICS
K V BMY BHILAI
 COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS
Every atomic nucleus except that of Hydrogen has two types of particles –
protons and neutrons. (Nucleus of Hydrogen contains only one proton)

Proton is a fundamental particle with positive charge 1.6 x 10-19 C and mass
1.67 x 10-27 kg (1836 times heavier than an electron).

Neutron is also a fundamental particle with no charge and mass 1.675 x 10-27
kg (1840 times heavier than an electron).
ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)
The number of protons in a nucleus of an atom is called atomic number.
ATOMIC MASS NUMBER (A)
The sum of number of protons and number of neutrons in a nucleus of an atom
is called atomic mass number.

A=Z+N
• Nuclides with same charge number Z but different mass number A are called isotopes
For eg.
Chlorine, for example, has two isotopes having masses 34.98 u and 36.98 u
The relative abundances of these isotopes are 75.4 and 24.6 per cent, respectively.
The average mass of a chlorine atom is obtained by the weighted average of the masses
of the two isotopes,

𝑀1 × 𝑃1 + 𝑀2 × 𝑃2 34.98 × 75.4 + 36.98 × 24.6

𝑀= = = 35.47𝑢
100 100

• All nuclides with same mass number A are called isobars.

For example, the nuclides 𝟑𝟏𝑯and 𝟑𝟐𝑯𝒆 are isobars.

• Nuclides with same neutron number N but different atomic number Z, for example
𝟏𝟗𝟖 𝟏𝟗𝟕
𝟖𝟎𝑯𝒈 and, 𝟕𝟗𝑨𝒖 are called isotones.
 SIZE OF NUCLEUS
Nucleus does not have a sharp or well-defined boundary.
The radius of nucleus can be given by

R = R0 A⅓ where R0 = 1.2 x 10-5 m is a constant which is the

same for all nuclei and A is the mass number of the
nucleus.
Radius of nucleus ranges from 1 fm to 10 fm.
Nuclear Volume, V = (4/3) π R3 = (4/3) π R03 A
VαA

NUCLEUS DENSITY
Mass of nucleus, M = A amu = A x 1.66 x 10-27 kg
Nuclear Volume, V = (4/3) π R3 = (4/3) π R03 A

Nucleus Density, ρ = M / V

A x 1.66 x 10−27 1.66 x 10−27

𝜌= ∴𝝆=
(4/3) π R03 A (4/3) π R03
 MASS – ENERGY RELATION

Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 u of substance.

𝐸 = 1.67 × 10−27 3 × 108 2 𝐽

𝐸 = 1.67 × 10−27 3 × 108 2 /1.6 × 10−19 𝑒𝑉

𝑬 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏𝑴𝒆𝑽
 MASS DEFECT
It is the difference between the rest mass of the nucleus and the sum of the
masses of the nucleons composing a nucleus is known as mass defect.
Δm = [ Zmp + (A – Z) mn ] - M
Mass defect per nucleon is called packing fraction.

BINDING ENERGY
It is the energy required to break up a nucleus into its constituent parts and
place them at an infinite distance from one another.

B.E = Δm c2

B.E =[( Zmp + (A – Z) mn ) – M]c2

𝑩. 𝑬 𝟏
= [( 𝒁𝒎𝒑 + (𝑨 – 𝒁) 𝒎𝒏 ) – 𝑴]𝒄𝟐
𝑨 𝑨
 CALCULATION OF BINDING ENERGY

Let us consider 𝟏𝟔𝟖𝑶; a nucleus which has 8 neutrons and 8 protons.

Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866 u = 8.06928u

Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727 u = 8.05816 u

Total mass of p & n = 16.12744 u

𝟏𝟔
Mass of 𝟖𝑶 = 15.99493 u.

∆𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟓𝟏𝒖

𝑩𝑬 = 𝟏𝟐𝟑. 𝟑𝟔𝑴𝒆𝑽
BINDING ENERGY CURVE
 SPECIAL FEATURES OF BINDING ENERGY CURVE

1. Binding energy per nucleon of very light nuclides such as 1H2 is very small.

2. Initially, there is a rapid rise in the value of binding energy per nucleon.

3. Between mass numbers 4 and 20, the curve shows peaks corresponding to
4 8 12 16
2He , 4Be , 6C , 8O . This shows that the B.E. per nucleon of these nuclides is
greater than those of their immediate neighbours.

4. After A = 20, there is a gradual increase in B.E. per nucleon. The maximum
value of 8.8 MeV is reached at A = 56. Therefore, Iron nucleus is the most
stable.
5. Binding energy per nucleon of nuclides having mass numbers ranging from
40 to 120 are close to the maximum value. So, these elements are highly
stable.
 SPECIAL FEATURES OF BINDING ENERGY CURVE

6. Beyond A = 120, the value decreases and falls to 7.6 MeV for Uranium.

7. Beyond A = 130, the value of Binding Energy shows a rapid decrease. This
makes elements beyond Uranium (trans – uranium elements) quite unstable
and radioactive.

8. The decreasing value of Binding Energy at high mass number indicates that
the nucleus is unstable and they can undergo fission to become stable.

9. The lesser value of Binding Energy at low mass numbers indicates that the
nucleons can undergo fusion to become stable.
FISSION ON THE BASIS OF BINDING ENERGY CURVE

A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per nucleon compared

to that of a nucleus with A = 120.

Thus if a nucleus A = 240 breaks into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons get more tightly

bound.

This implies energy would be released in the process. It has very important

implications for energy production through fission.

𝐵𝐸 𝐵𝐸
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑟 ⟶ 𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐴 𝐴

𝑈𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 ⟶ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖

FUSION ON THE BASIS OF BINDING ENERGY CURVE
Consider two very light nuclei (A 10) joining to form a heavier nucleus.

The binding energy per nucleon of the fused heavier nuclei is more than the binding

energy per nucleon of the lighter nuclei.

This means that the final system is more tightly bound than the initial system.

Energy would be released in such a process of fusion.

𝐵𝐸 𝐵𝐸
𝐿𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑟 ⟶ 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐴 𝐴
𝑈𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 ⟶ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖
 NUCLEAR FISSION
Nuclear fission is defined as a type of nuclear disintegration in which a heavy nucleus
splits up into two nuclei of comparable size accompanied by a release of a large amount
of energy.

1 235 → ( U236) → Ba141 + Kr92 +3 n1 +

0n + 92U 92 56 36 0 γ (200 MeV)

∆𝒎 = [𝑴𝑼 + 𝑴𝒏 − 𝑴𝑩𝒂 − 𝑴𝑲𝒓 − 𝟑𝑴𝒏

𝑸 = ∆𝒎 × 𝒄𝟐
 CHAIN REACTION

Neutron (thermal) 0n1

Uranium 235
92U

Barium 141
56Ba

Krypton 92
36Kr

n = No. of fission stages

n=1 n=2 n=3 N = No. of Neutrons
N=1 N=9 N = 27 N = 3n
 CHAIN REACTION
• If the chain reaction is controlled suitably, we can get a steady energy
output.
• If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, it leads to explosive energy output, as
in a nuclear bomb.
• In Nuclear reactor Chain reaction takes place in controlled manner to
produce energy at steady rate.
• It is known experimentally that slow neutrons (thermal neutrons) are much
more likely to cause fission in than fast neutrons. Also fast neutrons
liberated in fission would escape instead of causing another fission reaction.
• In reactors, light nuclei called moderators are provided along with the
fissionable nuclei for slowing down fast neutrons. The moderators
commonly used are water, heavy water (𝐷2 𝑂) and graphite.
A heavy nucleus X of mass number 240 and binding energy 7.6MeV per nucleon splits
into two nuclei Y and Z with mass number 110 and 130 respectively, each having
binding energy 8.5MeV per nucleon. Calculate energy released per fission in MeV.

Binding energy of 𝑋 = 7.6 × 240

Binding energy of Y and Z = 110 + 130 8.5

 56
13.16 Suppose, we think of fission of a 26𝐹𝑒 nucleus into two equal fragments 28
13𝐴𝑙 Is

the fission energetically possible? Argue by working out Q of the process. Given m
56
26𝐹𝑒= 55.93494 u and m 28
13𝐴𝑙= 27.98191 u.

56
26𝐹𝑒 = 2 28
13𝐴𝑙

M1​=55.93494 u is atomic mass of Fe.

M2​=27.98191 u is atomic mass of Al.

𝑄 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = 𝑀1 − 2𝑀2 × 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉

𝑄 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒= (55.93−2×27.98)×931.5 = −26.902MeV

Q is negative. Hence fission is not possible.

 MULTIPLICATION FACTOR
• The ratio of number of fission produced by a given generation of neutrons to the
• number of fission of the preceding generation of neutrons

• It is the measure of the growth rate of the neutrons in the reactor

• If k is less than unity, a chain reaction cannot be sustained.

• If k = 1, a steady-state chain reaction can be maintained; and
• If k is greater than 1, the number of fissions increases at each step, resulting in a
divergent or uncontrolled chain reaction.

• CRITICAL SIZE: The actual size of material which allows the escape of neutrons to
such an extent that at least one neutron is positively left behind per fission reaction
is known as critical size.

• The amount of fissionable material to maintain the chain reaction with a constant
rate of fission is called the critical mass.
• For chain reaction to occur, the size of the fissionable material must be above the
size called ‘critical size’.

• A released neutron must travel minimum through 10 cm so that it is properly

slowed down (thermal neutron) to cause further fission.

• If the size of the material is less than the critical size, then all the neutrons are lost.

• If the size is equal to the critical size, then the no. of neutrons produced is equal to
the no. of neutrons lost.

• If the size is greater than the critical size, then the reproduction ratio of neutrons is
greater than 1 and chain reaction can occur.

• The value of k is controlled during the operation of a reactor by the positioning

of movable rods made of a material that readily absorbs neutrons such as boron
cadmium, or hafnium.
CHAIN REACTION CRITICAL SIZE

For chain reaction to occur, the size of the

fissionable material must be above the
size called ‘critical size’.
A released neutron must travel minimum
through 10 cm so that it is properly
slowed down (thermal neutron) to cause
further fission.
If the size of the material is less than the
critical size, then all the neutrons are lost.
If the size is equal to the critical size, then
the no. of neutrons produced is equal to
the no. of neutrons lost.
If the size is greater than the critical size,
then the reproduction ratio of neutrons is
greater than 1 and chain reaction can
n=1 n=2 n=3 occur.
N=1 N=9 N = 27
 NUCLEAR FORCE
The nuclear force is a force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms.

The nuclear force is the force that binds the protons and neutrons in a nucleus together.
This force can exist between protons and protons, neutrons and protons or neutrons
and neutrons.
PROPERTIES OF NUCLEAR FORCE

• The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb force acting between charges
or the gravitational forces between masses.
• It is short range force.
• The nuclear force between two nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance is more
than a few fermimetres. This leads to saturation of forces in a medium or a large-
sized nucleus, which is the reason for the constancy of the binding energy per
nucleon.
• The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-proton is
approximately the same. The nuclear force does not depend on the electric charge.
 NUCLEAR FUSION
Nuclear fusion is defined as a type of nuclear reaction in which two lighter nuclei
merge into one another to form a heavier nucleus accompanied by a release of a large
amount of energy.

For fusion to take place, the two nuclei must come close enough so that attractive
short-range nuclear force is able to affect them. However, since they are both
positively charged particles, they experience coulomb repulsion.
Both nuclei are positively charged particles, they experience coulomb repulsion. They,
therefore, must have enough energy to overcome this coulomb barrier
Barrier height for two protons is ~ 400 keV
3
𝑘 𝑇 = 𝐾 = 400 𝑘𝑒𝑉, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑇 ~ 3 × 106 𝐾.
2
 NUCLEAR FUSION
Energy Source of Sun:
Proton – Proton Cycle:

1 1 2 0
1H + 1H → 1H + 1e + 0.4 MeV
1 2 3
1H + 1H → 2He + 5.5 MeV
3 3 4 + 2 1H1 + 12.9 MeV
2He + 2He → 2He

Energy Source of Star:

Carbon - Nitrogen Cycle:
12 1 13
6C + 1H → 7N +γ (energy)
13 13 + 1e0 (positron)
7N → 6C
13 1 14
6C + 1H → 7N +γ (energy)
14 1 15
7N + 1H → 8O +γ (energy)
15 15 + 1e0 (positron)
8O → 7N
15 1 12 + 2He4 + γ (energy)
7N + 1H → 6C
 239 235
13.17 The fission properties of 94𝑃𝑢 are very similar to those of 92𝑈. The

average energy released per fission is 180 MeV. How much energy, in MeV, is
released if all the atoms in 1 kg of pure Pu undergo fission?

6.023 × 1023 × 1000

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑢 =
239

𝑁 = 2.52 × 1024

𝐼𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 = 180 𝑀𝑒𝑉

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑢 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

= 2.52 × 1024 × 180 = 4.53 × 1026 𝑀𝑒𝑉