Chapter 8: Nucleus: 8.1 Properties of Nucleus 8.2 Binding Energy and Mass Defect

CHAPTER 8 : NUCLEUS is defined as the
central core of an
(2 HOURS)
atom that is
positively charged
and contains
protons and
neutrons.
8.1 Properties of nucleus
8.2 Binding energy and mass defect. 1
8.1 Properties of nucleus (1/2 Hour)
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
• State the properties of proton and neutron

• Define
– Proton number
– Nucleon number
– Isotopes
• Use to represent a nuclide
2
8.1 Properties of nucleus
•A
nucleus of an atom is made up of protons and
neutrons that is also known as nucleons.
Figure 8.1.1( atom) Figure 8.1.2 (nucleus)
3
8.1.1 Properties of proton and neutron
Proton
 Particle with positive charge of the nucleus
 Charge : +1.60 x 10-19 C
 Mass : 1.672 x 10-27 kg / 1.007276 u
Neutron
 Particle with no charge of the nucleus
 Charge : -
 Mass : 1.675 x 10-27 kg / 1.008665 u
4
Proton number
 Definition: the number of protons in the nucleus.
 Also called as atomic number
 Symbol : Z
Nucleon number
 Definition : the total number of neutrons and protons in
the nucleus.
 Also called as atomic mass number
 Symbol : A
Isotope
 Definition : the atoms of the same element whose nuclei
contain the same number of protons (Z) but different
number of neutrons (N).
1 2 3
 Example : 1 1 1 HH, H,
(Hydrogen, deuterium, tritium) 5
 The atomic nucleus can be represented as
A
Z X
where X = symbol for the element
Z = atomic number (number of protons)
A = atomic mass number
= total number of protons and neutrons
Example :
56
26 Fe Element : Iron-56
Proton no, Z = 26
Nucleon no, A = 56
Neutron = 56-26 = 30
A-Z=N
6
Example 8.1
Complete the table below:
Element Number Number of Number of

nuclide of protons neutrons electrons
1
1H
9
4Be
14
7N
16
8O 8 8 8
23
11 Na
59
27 Co
31
16 S
133
55 Cs
238
92 U
7
8.2 Binding energy & Mass Defect
(1 1/2 Hour)
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:
• Define and determine mass defect

• Define and determine binding energy,
• Identify the average value of binding energy per nucleon of

stable nuclei from the graph of binding energy per nucleon
against nucleon number.
8
8.2.1 Mass defect, Δm
Definition
the difference between the sum of the masses of individual

nucleons that form an atomic nucleus and the mass of the
nucleus.
Formula Δm  Zm p  Nmn  M A

m p : mass of a proton
M A  mass of a nucleus
mn : mass of a neutron
Z  number of protons
N  number of neutrons 9
Example 8.2
From example above, can you determine the value of

mass defect ?
(Ans : 0.040475 a.m.u)
10
8.2.2 Binding Energy, EB
Definition
Energy required to separate a nucleus into its individual

protons and neutrons.
@ Energy released when nucleus is formed from its

individual nucleons.
Formula
Where E : Binding energy

Δm : Mass defect
c : speed of light = 3.00 x 108ms-1
11
• There are 2 methods to determine the value of Binding Energy, E B
• Example :
931.5MeV
Let Δm = 1 u = 1.66 x 10-27kg c2 =
u
=
Note : 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J
E B = Δmc 2 E B = Δmc 2
=(1.66×10-27 kg)(3.00×108 ms -1 ) 2  931.5 MeV 
=(1 u)  
=1.4904×10-10 kgm 2s -2  u 
=1.4904×10-10 J = 931.5 MeV
12
Example 8.3
Calculate
a) mass defect and
b) binding energy of the deuterium.
Given 12 H mass  2.013553 u
Solution:
13
Example 8.4
4
Calculate binding energy of the Helium nucleus, 2 He
in SI unit.
Given mass of helium atom = 4.00803 u
Solution:
14
EB
8.2.3 Binding Energy per nucleon, N
Definition
mean (average) binding energy of a nucleus
Binding energy ( EB )
Binding energy per nucleon 
Nucleon number( A)
mc 2
Binding energy per nucleon 
A
Binding energy per nucleon is measure the stability of of the
nucleus.
 The greater the binding energy per nucleon, the more
stable the nucleus is.
15
Example 8.5
Calculate the average binding energy per nucleon of the

iron-56 56 Fe .
26 
Given 56
26 Fe mass  55.93494 u
1
1 H  11p mass  1.00782 u
1
0 n mass  1.00867 u
Solution:
16
17
Exercise
20
1) The binding energy of the neon 10 Ne is160.64 MeV.
Find its atomic mass.
Given 1
1 p mass  1.007825 u
1
0 n mass  1.008665 u
(Ans: 19.992u)
2) Determine the total binding energy and the binding
14
 
energy per nucleon for the nitrogen -14 nucleus 14 N
7
Given 7 N mass  14.003074 u

1
1H  11p mass  1.007825 u
1
0 n mass  1.008665 u
18
3) Calculate the binding energy of an aluminum nucleus
in MeV.
(Given mass of neutron, mn=1.00867 u ; mass of proton,
mp=1.00782 u ; speed of light in vacuum, c=3.00108 m s1
and atomic mass of aluminum, MAl=8.98154 u)
(Ans: 225 MeV)
4) Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of a boron nucleus

in J/nucleon.
(Given mass of neutron, mn=1.00867 u ; mass of proton,
mp=1.00782 u ; speed of light in vacuum,
c=3.00108 m s1 and atomic mass of boron, MB=10.01294
u)
(E = 1.04x10 -12 J/nucleon)
19
RADIOACTIVITY
Chapter 8
Tuesday, March 28, 2023 20
What is the RADIOACTIVE?
RADIOACTIVE
Radioactivity is a phenomenon in which an

unstable nuclei undergoes spontaneous
decay as a result of which a new nucleus is
formed and energy in the form of radiation
is released.

RADIOACTIVITY
Nuclear Radioactive The Use of

Radiation Decay Radioisotope
ALPHA Law of Radioactive

Radioisotope as
( @ He) Decay  Tracers
BETA 0
 Sterilization
( @ e )-1
 Thickness
Decay
Half Time Gauge
GAMMA Constant
(T )  Carbon – 14
()
1
() ln 2
2
Dating
dN 
 - N T1
dt 2

8.1 RADIOACTIVE DECAY
THE OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Explain α, β+, - and γ decays.

State decay law and use dN   N .
dt
Define and determine activity, A and decay
constant,  .
 t  t
Derive and use N  N o e or A  Ao e .
ln 2
Define and use half-life T1  .
2

Is a spontaneous disintegration process of
heavy unstable elements accompanied by the
emission of alpha particle (), beta particle
(), or gamma rays ().
Is a spontaneous reaction that is unplanned, cannot be
predicted and independent of physical conditions
(such as pressure, temperature) and chemical changes.
It is a random reaction because the probability of a
nucleus decaying at a given instant is the same for all
the nuclei in the sample.
Radioactive radiations are emitted when an unstable
nucleus decays. The radiations are
  decay,   decay,   decay

In  decay, the nucleus of heavy radioactive
element emits an -particle.
4
An -particle is a He nucleus consists of two
2
protons and two neutrons.
It is positively charged particle and its value is
+2e with mass of 4.001502 u.
It is produced when a heavy nucleus (Z > 82)
decays.
Alpha particles can penetrate a sheet of paper.
When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay it loses 4
nucleons (2 protons and 2 neutrons).
α particle
parent
daughter
The reaction can be represented by general

equation below : A
Z
A 4
X  Z 2Y
4
 2 He  Q
(Parent) (Daughter) ( particle)
general equation for -decay:
A A-4 4
Z X Z-2 Y+ He+Q
2
where X = parent nucleus
Y = daughter nucleus
Q = energy released or -rays
-decay is followed by the emission of gamma rays
for the daughter to be stable
Eamples; A A -4
Z X  Z -2Y+ 2 He+Q
4
parent Daughter  particle

238 234
92 U  90 Th + 42 He  Q
226 222
88 Ra  86 Rn+ 42 He+Q
The energy released appears in the form of kinetic
energy in the daughter nucleus and the alpha particle
which is given by
Q  mx  mY  m c 2
If Q < 0, decay
could not occur

In  decay, the nucleus emits a -particle (+ and -) that has
high velocity (v ~ c).
It has the same mass as electron or 0.000549 u.
Negatron decay, β-
Negatron (- or 0 e) decay will happen when the number of
1
neutrons are more than the number of protons in a nucleus.
Also called as negatron or electron.
Symbol; β- or
It is produced when
0 one of 0the neutrons in the parent
1 β or 1 e
nucleus decays into a proton, an electron and an
antineutrino.

Massless,
neutral
General equation of negatron decay process:

A A 0
Z X Z+1 Y+ β  v
1
parent Daughter  particle antineutrino
where vis called ‘antineutrino’ (an elementary particle

that exist to account the missing energy in negatron decay)

In beta-minus decay, an electron is emitted, thus the
mass number does not charge but the charge of the
parent nucleus increases by one as shown below :
A
Z X  A
Y
Z 1 
0
1 e  Q
(Parent) (Daughter) ( particle)
Examples of  minus decay :

A
Z X  A
Y
Z 1 
0
1 e  Q
(Parent) (Daughter) ( particle)
234 234 0
90 Th  91 Pa  -1 eQ
234 234 0
91 Pa  92 U  -1 eQ
Tuesday, March 28, 2023SF027 33

Positron decay, β+
Positron (+ or 10 e ) decay will happen when the number
of protons is more than the number of neutrons in a
nucleus.
Also called as positron or antielectron.
0 0
Symbol; β or +
1 β or e
1
It is produced when one of the protons in the parent

nucleus decays into a neutron, a positron and a
neutrino.

Massless,
neutral
General equation of negatron decay process:

A A 0
Z X Z+1 Y+ β  v
1
parent Daughter  particle neutrino
where vis called ‘neutrino’ (an elementary particle that

exist to account the missing energy in positron decay)

In beta-plus decay, a positron is emitted, this time the
charge of the parent nucleus decreases by one as shown
below :
A
Z X  A
Z-1Y  0
1 e  Q
(Parent) (Daughter) (Positron)
Example of  plus decay :

A
Z X  A
Z-1 Y  0
1 e  Q
(Parent) (Daughter) (Positron)
12 12 0
7 N  C e  v  Q 6 1

In -decay, a photon (-ray) is emitted when the
excited nucleus changes from a higher level energy
state to a lower level. The wavelengths of the
electromagnetic radiation are shorter than 10-10 m.
Gamma rays photon are emitted when an excited
nucleus in an excited state makes a transition to a
ground state. This will happen when the nucleus
decays into alpha or beta particles.
thus gamma-ray emission often associates with
other type of decays.
General equation for gamma decay:
A * A
Z X  X Z
where X* = excited nucleus
X = stable nucleus
The asterisk (*) indicates that the nucleus is in an excited
state.
There is no change in the proton number and the mass
number of the nucleus
Examples of -decay;
218  214 4
84Po  Pb He  γ
82 2
234 Gamma ray
91Pa   U  e  γ
234
92 1
0
208
Ti   Ti  γ
81
208
81
-ray is uncharged (neutral) ray and zero mass.
The differ between gamma-rays and x-rays of the
same wavelength only in the manner in which
they are produced; gamma-rays are a result of
nuclear processes, whereas x-rays originate
outside the nucleus.

Comparison of the properties of the alpha particle,
beta particle and gamma ray.
Table 8.1 shows the comparison between the radioactive radiations
Alpha Beta Gamma
Charge
Deflection by
electric and Yes Yes No
magnetic fields
Ionization power Strong Moderate Weak
Penetration power Weak Moderate Strong
Ability to affect a
photographic plate Yes Yes Yes
Ability to produce
Yes Yes Yes
fluorescence
Comparison of the properties of the alpha particle, beta particle
and gamma ray.

Comparison of the properties of the alpha particle,
beta particle and gamma ray.

Example 8.1:
Write equations to represent the following radioactive decay.
a) decays by emitting an alpha-particle and a gamma photon.
238
b) U
92decays by beta-emission.
c) 32 decays by positron-emission.
15 P
You
64may use X, Y and Z to represent the daughter nuclides.
29 Cu
Solution 8.1:
a)
b)
c)

Example 8.3:
211
83 Bi decays to Po according to the equation 211
Bi  Po  β  γ
83
where  is a -particle and  is a -ray photon. What is the proton
number (atomic number) of Po?
A.82 B. 84 C. 207 D. 212
Example 8.4
Complete the following radioactive decays and identify the
radiations emitted.
234
a) 90 Th  Pa  e
14
b) 6 C  N  e + γ
22
c)
11 Na  Ne  e
QUESTION 1:
Determine the energy released when a Uranium 238 92
U decays by
emitting an -particle to form a Thorium nucleus = 234 90 Th.
(mass of 238
92 U = 238.0508 u; mass of 234
90
Th = 234.0436 u; mass of
4
2
He = 4.0026 u; 1 u = 934 MeV). (4.3 MeV)
QUESTION 2:
Find the energy released during a -decay in which a Thorium
nucleus 234
90 Th is converted to a protactinium nucleus 234
91
Pa.
234
(mass of 234
90
Th = 234.0436 u; mass of 91 Pa = 234.04330 u; 1 u =
934 MeV). (0.27 MeV)
QUESTION 3
Polonium 216
84 Po undergoes an -decay to produce a daughter
nucleus that itself undergoes of -decay. What is the atomic number
and mass number of the final nuclide?

dN
  N
dt

Decay constant, 
 Decay law states that the rate of disintegration of a
given nuclide at any time (rate of decay) is directly
proportional to the number of nuclei N present at
that time.
OR
 dN 
 For a radioactive source, the decay rate   is 
 dt 
directly proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei
N remaining in the source.

 dN 
  N
 dt 
Negative sign means the number
dN
 N  At of nuclei present decreases with
dt time
Decay dN Unit is the Becquerel, (Bq)
rate  At 1 Bq is the rate of decay of 1
known as dt nucleus per second
Activity, = the activity
A
= the decays per second
= the disintegrations per second by the radioactive
nucleus
(1 Bq = 1 decay/s)
(1 Ci (curie) =3.7 × 10 10
Bq) (present).
N = the number of nuclei remain
dN λ = decay constant
 N  At
dt dN
 dt
N
• Hence, the Decay constant of a nuclide is the probability
that a radioactive atom will decay in one second.
• Its unit is s-1.
• It has different values for different nuclides.
• Decay constant is the characteristic of the
radioactive nuclide.
• The larger the decay constant, the greater is the
rate of decay.

From the equation dN    N , dN  dt
dt N
At time t=0, N=N0 (initial number of radioactive nuclei in the
sample) and after a time t, the number of radioactive nuclei present
is N.
By integrating the equation from t = 0 to time t :
N dN t
N0 N
   dt
0
ln N  N
N0   t 
t
0
N Exponential law of
ln   λt
N0 radioactive decay
N  N 0 e  λt
N 1 t
 No
dN    0 dt
N
ln N N
No  t
ln N  ln N o   λt
 N 
ln     λt
 No 
N  λt
e
No
N  N o e  λt
From the law of radioactive decay,
dN
 N and definition of
dt
dN
Activity,  At
dt
 t
Thus, A    N and N  N 0e

A    N 0 e  t 
   N 0 e  t and A0    N 0
 λt
A  A0 e
Activity at time t Activity at time, t =0

53
Tuesday, March 28, 2023
ln 2
T1 
2 

HALF-LIFE, T1
2
• time required for the number of radioactive nuclei to
decrease to half of the original number of nuclei
• At t = T1 and N = N0 / 2 from N  N o e  λt
2
1
2
N o  N o e  λT1/2
1
2  e  λT1/2
λT1/2
e 2
λT1/2  ln 2
ln 2
T1 
2

• The half-life of any given radioactive nuclide is
constant, it does not depend on the number of nuclei
present.
• The units of the half-life are second (s), minute (min),
hour (hr), day and year (yr).
• Its depend on the unit of the decay constant.
Isotope Half-life
Table 8.2
238
92 U
shows the value 4.5  109 years
of half-life for 226
88 Ra 1.6  103 years
several 210
isotopes. 884 Po 138 days
234
90Th 24 days
222
86 Rn 3.8 days
214
Tuesday, March 28, 2023 83 Bi 20 minutes 56
Example 8.5
32
A sample of 15 P of mass 4.0 × 10-12 kg emits 4.2 × 107 -particles
32
per second. What is the decay constant of 15 P?
Solution 8.5:
Mass of 1 mol of
32
15 P is 0.032 kg. Hence 0.032 kg 32
15 P contains 6.02
× 1023 atoms.

• Example 8.6:
Initially, a radioactive sample contains

1.0  106 of radioactive nucleus. Half-life of
the sample is T½. Find the number of
nucleus that still remains after 0.5 T ½.

• Solution 8.6:

Example 8.8:
The activity of a sample of Radon-222 contains 3.0 × 107 radon
atoms is 120 Bq. The half-life of Radon-222 is 3.8 days.
a)What is the decay constant of Radon-222?
b)Calculate the number of Radon-222 atoms in the sample.
c)How many atoms of Radon-222 remain in the sample when the
activity is 40 Bq?
d)How many Radon-222 atoms present after 19 days?
e)Find the activity of the Radon after 19 days.
Solution 8.8:

Solution 8.8:

Solution 8.8:

QUESTION 1:
Find the half-life of radioactive sample if its activity decreased to 1/8
of its initial value in 9 days. (9 days)
QUESTION 2:
The half-life of Radon 219
86 Rn is 4.0 s.
a)What do the numbers 86 and 219 represent in the symbol 219 Rn?
86
b)Calculate the decay constant of 219 Rn.
86
c)Given that 219 g of Radon contains 6.02  1023 atoms, calculate the
rate of disintegration of 1.00 g of Rn. 219
86
(0.173 s-1, 4.761021 Bq)
QUESTION 3:
An isotope of krypton 36
87
Kr  has a half-life of 78 minutes. Calculate
the activity of 10µg of krypton (in Bq and Ci). (1.02  1013 Bq, 275.7 Ci)

8.2 RADIOISOTOPE AS
TRACERS
THE OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
Explain the application radioisotope as

tracers.

8.2 The use of Radioisotope
Nuclear techniques are widely used in industry &
environmental management.
Modern industry uses radioisotopes in a variety of ways to
improve productivity and in some case, to gain information
that cannot be obtained in any other way.
a) Radioisotope as tracers
Radioisotope (unstable isotope) is an isotope which is exhibits
radioactivity (known as radioactive isotope).
The progress of a small amount of a weak radioisotope injected
into a system can be traced by a detector.

Examples:
i) To investigate metabolic pathways or blood flow:
A small quantity of iodine-131 is injected into a patient’s
bloodstream and later builds up in the kidneys. The process of the
iodine is measured by a detector outside the body around the
kidney region. If there is a blockage, the count rate will rise.
It is used to investigate organs in human body such as kidney,
thyroid gland, heart, brain, and etc..
It also used to monitor the blood flow and measure the blood
volume.
volume
The volume of blood in the bloodstream, V2 can be determined
by using dilution method as given below.
 A2  A1 A2
V2   V1 
 A1  V1 V2
A1 A2
where 
V1 V2
A1 = activity of the blood drawn from the patient

A2 = activity of the blood in the bloodstream
V1 = volume of the blood drawn from the patient
V2 = volume of blood in the bloodstream of the patient
A1
 activity per unit volume of the blood drawn from the patient
V1
A2
 activity per unit volume of the blood in the blood stream
V2

ii) Detecting leaks in underground pipes.
The exact position of an underground pipe can be located

if a small quantity of radioactive liquid is added to the
liquid being carried by the pipe.
Geiger counter can be used to detect the leaks.
Any leaks would be detected by an increase in radiation
reading .
The soil close to the leak becomes radioactive.
The short-lived radioisotope is used to avoid from the
permanent contamination of the soil.

iii) Detecting brain tumors.
Technitium-99 is a gamma emitter (half-life 6 hours) and is

used as a medical tracer.
When injected into the blood stream, 99 Tc will not be
absorbed by the brain, because of the blood-brain barrier.
However, tumors do not have this barrier.
Thus, brain tumors readily absorb the 99 Tc.
These tumors then show as gamma-ray emitters on detectors
external to the body.
The short-lived radioisotope is used so that it
can quickly eliminate from the body.

iv) To detect oil leakage:
A gamma emitter is added to the oil. The detector will show an

unusually high count rate at the crack position.
b) Radioisotope as Sterilization:
Gamma irradiation is widely used for sterilizing medical
instruments and for food by killing bacteria.
Cobalt-60 is the main isotope used since it is an energetic gamma
emitter.

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CHAPTER 8 : NUCLEUS is defined as the

At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

• State the properties of proton and neutron

Figure 8.1.1( atom) Figure 8.1.2 (nucleus)

Element Number Number of Number of

• Define and determine mass defect

• Identify the average value of binding energy per nucleon of

the difference between the sum of the masses of individual

Formula Δm  Zm p  Nmn  M A

From example above, can you determine the value of

Energy required to separate a nucleus into its individual

@ Energy released when nucleus is formed from its

Where E : Binding energy

Note : 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19J

2) Determine the total binding energy and the binding

Given 7 N mass  14.003074 u

4) Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of a boron nucleus

Radioactivity is a phenomenon in which an

Tuesday, March 28, 2023 21

Nuclear Radioactive The Use of

ALPHA Law of Radioactive

Tuesday, March 28, 2023 22

Explain α, β+, - and γ decays.

  decay,   decay,   decay

The reaction can be represented by general

parent Daughter  particle

Q  mx  mY  m c 2

Tuesday, March 28, 2023 30

Tuesday, March 28, 2023 31

General equation of negatron decay process:

where vis called ‘antineutrino’ (an elementary particle

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Examples of  minus decay :

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It is produced when one of the protons in the parent

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General equation of negatron decay process:

where vis called ‘neutrino’ (an elementary particle that

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Example of  plus decay :

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A.82 B. 84 C. 207 D. 212

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Activity at time t Activity at time, t =0

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Initially, a radioactive sample contains

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