The dual nature of electrons was particularly troublesome because
of the electron’s exceedingly small mass. To describe the problem of trying to locate a subatomic particle that behaves like a wave, the German physicist Werner Heisenberg formulated what is now known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976)
“It is impossible to know simultaneously both the momentum (mass × velocity) and the position of a particle with certainty. “
K.Khaladi 5 Chapter 4 Course In other words, to get a precise measurement of the momentum of a particle we must settle for less precise knowledge of the particle’s position, and vice versa ℎ ∆𝑥. ∆𝑝𝑥 ≥ 4𝜋 ℎ ∆𝑥. 𝑚∆𝑣 ≥ 4𝜋 ℎ ∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥ 4𝜋 ∆𝑥: uncertainty in the position ∆𝑝𝑥 : uncertainty in the momentum ∆𝑣: uncertainty in the velocity ∆𝑡: uncertainty in the time ∆E: uncertainty in the energy The value of h is not large, so the uncertainty in the position or momentum of a macroscopic object like a baseball is too insignificant to observe. However, the mass of a microscopic object such as an electron is small enough that the uncertainty can be large and significant. K.Khaladi 6 Chapter 4 Course 4-The Quantum–Mechanical Model of an Atom In quantum mechanics, we cannot describe the movement of particles by trajectories as in classical mechanics, we rather describe the portion of space( orbital) where the particles are distributed. the quantum particle is described by a wave function Ψ (psi) , which represents the distribution of this particle in space In 1926 Schrödinger showed that the wave function and energy are solutions of a second order partial differential equation. Erwin Schrödinger the Schrödinger equation can be written as: 1887-1961
the Hamiltonian operator, a set of mathematical
𝐻is operations representing the total energy of the quantum Eψ 𝐻ψ= particle (such as an electron in an atom), ψ is the wavefunction of this particle that can be used to find the special distribution of the probability of finding the particle, and E is the actual value of the total energy of the particle. K.Khaladi 7 Chapter 4 Course 5-Quntum numbers In quantum mechanics, three quantum numbers are required to describe the distribution of electrons in hydrogen and other atoms. These numbers are derived from the mathematical solution of the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom. They are called • The principal quantum number (n) • The angular momentum quantum number (l ) • The magnetic quantum number. These quantum numbers will be used to describe atomic orbitals and to label electrons that reside in them. A fourth quantum number— the spin quantum number—describes the behavior of a specific electron and completes the description of electrons in atoms.
K.Khaladi 8 Chapter 4 Course 5-1The principale quantum number (n) :
The principal quantum number (n) can have integral values 1, 2, 3,4,5,6,and 7; in a hydrogen atom, the value of n determines the energy of an orbital. The principal quantum number also relates to the average distance of the electron from the nucleus in a particular orbital. The larger n is, the greater the average distance of an electron in the orbital from the nucleus and therefore the larger the orbital the principal quantum number designates the layer (or level)
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 shell K L M N O P Q
the total electron capacity for an n shell is 𝟐𝒏𝟐
K.Khaladi 9 Chapter 4 Course 5-2The angular momentum quantum number (l ) : The angular momentum quantum number ( l ) tells us the “shape” of the orbitals . The values of l depend on the value of the principal quantum number, n. For a given value of n, l has possible integral values from 0 to (n - 1) 0≤𝑙 ≤𝑛−1 l 0 1 2 3
Name of orbital s p d f
A collection of orbitals with the same value of n is frequently called a shell. One or more orbitals with the same n and l values are referred to as a subshell Example: the shell with n = 2 is composed of two subshells, l=0 and l=1 (the allowed values for n = 2). These subshells are called the 2s and 2p subshells where 2 denotes the value of n, and s and p denote the values of (l ) a subshell can take (4l+2) electrons K.Khaladi 10 Chapter 4 Course 5-3The magnetic quantum number (ml ) : The magnetic quantum number (ml ) describes the orientation of the orbital in space. Within a subshell, the value of ml depends on the value of the angular momentum quantum number l , .For a certain value of l, there are (2 l + 1) integral values of ml as follows: -l ≤ml ≤+l
The number of ml values indicates the number of orbitals in a subshell with a particular l value.
l 0 1 2 3 Subshell s p d f ml 0 -1 , 0 , 1 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 Number of orbitals 1 3 5 7 Representation
the total electron capacity for a quantum case (orbital) equal to 2
K.Khaladi 11 Chapter 4 Course 5-4The electron spin quantum number (ms) : Experiments on the emission spectra of hydrogen and sodium atoms indicated that lines in the emission spectra could be split by the application of an external magnetic field. The only way physicists could explain these results was to assume that electrons act like tiny magnets. If electrons are thought of as spinning on their own axes, as Earth does, their magnetic properties can be accounted for. According to electromagnetic theory, a spinning charge generates a magnetic field, and it is this motion that causes an electron to behave like a magnet. Figure 1 shows the two possible spinning motions of an electron, one clockwise and the other counterclockwise. To take the electron spin into account, it is necessary to introduce a fourth quantum number, called the electron spin quantum number (ms), which has a value 1 1 of+ 2 or− 2 .
K.Khaladi 12 Chapter 4 Course The properties and meaning of the quantum numbers of electrons in atoms are briefly summarized in Table 4.
K.Khaladi 13 Chapter 4 Course Application
I. Indicate the number of subshells, the number of orbitals in each subshell, and the values of l and ml for the orbitals in the n = 4 shell of an atom. II. Identify the subshell in which electrons with the following quantum numbers are found: (a) n = 3, l = 1; (b) n = 5, l = 3 ; (c) n = 2, l = 0.
K.Khaladi 14 Chapter 4 Course 6-The Shape of atomic orbitals 6-2 s Orbital All s orbitals are spherical in shape but differ in size, which increases as the principal quantum number increases
Figure 6.1 Boundary surface diagrams of the hydrogen 1s, 2s, and 3s orbitals. Each sphere contains about 90 percent of the total electron density. All s orbitals are spherical. Roughly speaking, the size of an orbital is proportional to 𝑛2 , where n is the principal quantum number. K.Khaladi 15 Chapter 4 Course 6-2 p Orbitals
Figure 6.2 The boundary surfaces of p orbitals. A nodal plane passes through the nucleus and separates the two lobes of each orbital. The dark and light areas denote regions of opposite sign of the wavefunction.
K.Khaladi 16 Chapter 4 Course 6-2 d Orbitals
Figure6.3 The boundary surfaces of d orbitals. Two nodal planes in each orbital intersect at the nucleus and separate the lobes of each orbital. The dark and light areas denote regions of opposite sign of the wavefunction.
