Chemistry Notes

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ATOMIC STRUCRURE
Long Answer Questions:
1. What are quantum numbers? Give their significance?
Ans. The various orbitals in an atom qualitatively distinguished by their size, shape and orientation.
The atomic orbitals are precisely distinguished by the numbers known as quantum numbers. Each
orbital is designated by three quantum numbers labelled as n, l and m.
There are four quantum numbers required for a complete explanation of electrons in an atom.
The quantum numbers are –
1) Principal quantum number (n)

2) Azimuthal quantum number ( l)
3) Magnetic quantum number (m)
4) Spin quantum number (s)
1. Principal Quantum Number (n):

i. It was proposed by Neil’s Bohr
ii. The value of n is 1,2,3,4............. (Or) K, L, M, N............ respectively
iii. As ‘n’ value increases, the size and energy of the orbit also increase.
Iv. The maximum number of electrons possible in an orbit = 2n2
v .The maximum number of orbitals possible in an orbit = 2n
vi. The maximum number of sublevels possible in an orbit =n
vii. The angular momentum of an electron in an orbit i.e. mvr = nh/2
Significance: It indicates the size and energy of the orbit for hydrogen atom and hydrogen like
species
2.Azimuthal Quantum Number(L):
I . It was proposed by Somerfield
ii. The values of l are 0, 1, 2,..... (n-1), a total of n values.
iii. The value of l represents various sub shells and l = 0,1,2,3 etc... are called s,p,d,f..........
sub shells respectively
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iv. It indicates the orbital angular momentum of electron. Orbital angular momentum of the electron
h
is given by l ( l + 1)
2π
V. It represents the sub shell to which electron belongs.
Significance: It indicates the shape of orbitals S-spherical, P-dumb bell and d- double dumb bell.
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m):
i. It was proposed by Lande
ii. The values of m are +l to -l including zero, a total of 2l+1 values
iii. The total number of m values indicates the total number of orbitals in the subshell. The number
of orbitals in s, p, d and f sub shells is 1, 3, 5 and 7 respectively
iv. The number of oribitals in a sub shell =2l+1 and electrons = 2(2l+1)
Significance: It indicates the orientation of orbitals in space
4. Spin Quantum Number(S):

i. It was proposed by Goldsmith and Uhlenbeck
ii. The values of S in clock wise direction is represented by + 1/2 and anti clock wise, direction is
represented by - 1/2
iii. An orbital can accommodate maximum of 2 electrons with opposite spin.
iv. The maximum number of electrons accommodated by s, p, d and f subshells is 2,6,10 and 14
respectively.
Significance: It indicates the direction of the spin of the electron
2. What are the main Postulates of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom?Discus the importance of
this model to explain various series of line spectra in hydrogen atom. Give its merits and
demerits?
Ans. Postulates of Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom
(1) The electrons in the hydrogen atom revolves around the nucleus only in certain circular orbits
associated with definite energy, called energy shells (or) energy levels. These are designated as
numbers like 1,2,3,4, -------- etc (or) letters like K, L, M, N --------- etc.
(2) As long as the electron revolves in a particular orbit it can neither loose nor gain energy i.e
energy of an electron in a particular orbit remains constant. Hence these orbits are called stationary
orbits.
(3) Only those orbits are permitted in which the angular momentum of electrons is the whole
number multiple of h/2
The angular momentum of electron can be represented as
mvr=nh/2 where n = 1, 2, 3....... m = mass of electron, v = velocity of electron, r = radius of an orbit
and h = Planck’s constant
4) Electron may emit or absorbs energy when it changes from one level to another level. Electron
moves from lower orbit to higher orbit by absorbing energy. If electron jumps from higher orbit to
lower orbit then it emits energy.
The energy emitted or absorbed is given by ∆ E = E 2 − E1 = hν
Bohr’s Explanation of Hydrogen Spectrum:

Hydrogen atom has one proton and one electron in the ground state. By the absorption of energy,
electron jumps from the ground state to the higher energy level and atom becomes unstable. In order
to get the stability the electron should comes back to lower energy level with emission of energy.
While de-excitation of electron, the electron directly comes to the first energy level (or) it may
comes through the different intermediate levels. Since many atoms are involved, hence it produces
large number of spectral lines in the hydrogen spectrum. The five series of spectral lines in the
hydrogen emission spectrum are as shown below.
n=7
n=6
P fund series (Far IR region)
n=5
Brackett Series(Middle IR region)
n=4
Paschen Series (Near I.R region)
n=3
Balmer Series(Visible region)
n=2
Lyman series(U.V. region)
n=1
Merts of Bohr’s Model:

1. Bohr’s model explains the stability of the atom.
2. Bohr’s theory successfully explains the atomic spectrum of hydrogen and one electron species
such as He+, Li2+ and Be3+ etc.
3. The experimentally determined frequencies of spectral lines are in close agreement with those
calculated by Bohr’s theory.
Limitations of Bohr’s Model:
1. Bohr’s theory fails to explain the spectra of multi electron atoms.
2. It could not explain the fine structure of atomic spectrum.
3. It does not explain the splitting of spectral lines into a group of finer lines under the influence of
magnetic field (Zeeman Effect) and electric field (Stark effect).
4. Bohr’s theory is not in agreement with Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
3. State and explain the following with suitable examples.

a). Auf-bau principle b) Pauli’s principle c) Hund’s rule.
Ans.
Aufbau Principle:
It states that “In the ground state of the atoms, the orbitals are filled in order of their
increasing energies”. i.e. electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbital available to them and enter
into higher energy orbitals only after the lower energy orbitals are filled.
The relative energy of an orbital is given by (n + l) value. As (n + l) value increases, the energy of
orbital increases.
The orbital with the lowest (n + l) value is filled first. When two or more orbitals have the same
(n + l) value, the one with the lowest ‘n’ value is preferred in filling.
Consider two orbitals 3d and 4s. The n + l value of 3d = 3 + 2 = 5 and of 4s = 4 + 0 = 4. Since 4s
has lowest (n + l) value, it is filled first before filling taking place in 3d.
The order of increasing energy of atomic orbitals is:
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s and so on.
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle:
Pauli’s principle may be stated as “No two electrons in an atom can have the same set of values for
all the four quantum numbers”.
This means that two electrons in an orbital may have the same n, same l and same m but
differ in spin quantum number. In an orbital if one electron has clockwise spin, the other has
anticlockwise spin. It follows that an orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons with opposite
spins.
For example helium atom has two electrons in its 1s orbital. Quantum numbers for
First electrons are n =1, l = 0, m = 0 and s = +1/2 and for second electrons are:
n =1, l = 0, m =0, s = –1/2.
The two electrons have the same value for n, same value for l and same value for m but differ
in s. The maximum capacity of a main energy shell is equal to 2n2 electrons and that of a sub-shell
is equal to (4 l + 2).
Hund’s Rule:
It states that “Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the same subshell
(p, d or f) does not take place until each orbital belonging to that subshell has got one electron each
i.e., all the orbitals are singly occupied”.
Since there are 3, 5 and 7 orbitals in p, d and f - subshell, pairing in these subshells starts
with 4th, 6th and 8th electron respectively.
The following examples explain Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity. 6C:
2
1s2 2s2 2p
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
2px1 2py1
3
1s2 2s2 2p
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
7 2px12py12pz1
N:
Short Answer Questions
1. Explain the difference between emission and absorption spectra?

Ans. Emission spectrum Absorption spectrum
1). The spectra is formed when an electron 1). The spectra is formed when an electron
Jumps from higher orbits to lower orbits jumps from lower orbits to higher orbits
2). It is formed due to emission of energy in 2). It is formed due to absorption of energy quanta
in quanta
3). It contains bright lines on dark back ground 3). It contains dark lines on bright back
ground
4). It is classified into continuous and 4). It is not classified
discontinuous spectrum
2. Explain photo electric effect?

Ans. 1) When a beam of light (h) of suitable wave length is allowed to fall on, the surface of the
metal. The electrons are emitted from the metal surface. This phenomenon is called photo
electric effect. It is represented as follows.
i.e hν = W0 + K .E → (1)
Where hν = energy of incident photon
W0= work function
1 2
mv
Kinetic energy K.E =2
the equation (1) is expressed as hν = hv0 + K .E → ( 2 ) here W0 = hν 0
hν 0 =the minimum energy required to break the force of attraction between nucleus and electron is
called as Threshold energy. hν = hν 0 + K .E
 c
K .E = hν − hν 0 = h (ν −ν 0 ) ∴ν = λ 
hc hc 1 1 
K .E = − = hc  − 
λ λ0  λ λ0 
1) Except Li remaining alkali metals are used in photo electric cells. Due to low work function and
low I.P value.
2) Caesium is more used in photo electric cell due to very low I.P value.
3. What is a nodal plane? How many nodal planes are possible for 2p- and 3d- orbitals?
Ans. The plane passing through the nucleus where the probability of finding the electron is zero is
called nodal plane.
Number of nodal planes for orbit is equal to ‘l’ where l is Azimuthal quantum number
i) For a 2p orbital ‘l’ is 1. ∴ the number of nodal planes are one.
ii) for a 3d orbital l value is ‘2’. ∴ the number of nodal planes are two.
Very Short Answer
1. What is a black body?

Ans. The ideal body which emits and absorbs radiations of all frequencies is called black body.
2. Which part of electromagnetic spectrum does Balmer series belong?

Ans. Visible region
3. What is an atomic orbital?

Ans. The region around the nucleus where the probability of finding an electron is maximum is
called ‘Orbital’.
4. When an electron is transferred in hydrogen atom from n = 4 orbit to n = 5 orbit, to which
spectral series does this belong?
Ans. No spectral line is formed during this transition.
5. How many p electrons are present in sulphur atom?

Ans. Electronic configuration of ‘S’ (Z = 16) = 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s 2 3 p 4
∴ No. of ‘P’ electrons = 10
6. The static electric charge on the oil drop is −3.2044 × 10 −19 C. How many electrons are present
on it?
Ans. − 1.602 × 10 −19 C means 1 electron
− 3.204 × 10 −19 C means
−3.204 ×10−19
= = 2 electrons.
−1.602 ×10−19
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS
1) Define first and second ionization potentials. Why is the second ionization potential greater
than the first ionization potential? Discuss three factors affecting IP values of elements?
Ans. The minimum energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an isolated
gaseous atom to convert it into a gaseous ion is called first ionization potential. It is expressed in
e.v/atom or k.j/mole or k.cal/mole.
M ( g ) + I1 → M (+g ) + e −
unipositive ion
Second ionization Potential:
The energy required to remove an electron from unipositive gaseous ion is called second ionization
potential.
M (+g ) + I 2 → M (2g+) + e −
Dipositive ion
IP2 is greater than IP1:
In neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons. In unipositive, ion
the number of electrons is less than the number of protons. So in unipositive ion, the attraction of
the nucleus over the outermost electrons is high. Hence the energy required to remove the electron
from unipositive ion is higher than that from neutral atom. So, I .P2 is greater than the I .P1
I .P1 < I .P2 < I .P3 .............I .Pn
: n = number of electrons
Factors influencing I.P
1) Atomic Radius: As the atomic radius increases, the nuclear force of attraction over the valence
electrons decreases. So I.P value decreases.
1
I .Pα
Atomic radius
2) Nuclear Charge: As the nuclear charge increases, the force of attraction on the valence electrons
increases. Hence I.P value increases.
I .P α Nuclear ch arg e
3) Screenig Effect: (or) Sheilding Effect: The electrons present in inner orbitals reduce the nuclear
attraction on the valency electrons. This is called Screening or Sheilding effect. As the number of
electrons in the inner shells increases, sheilding effect increases. So I.P value decreases. In a given
orbit the Sheilding effect caused various sublevels is in the order s > p > d > f
1
Ionization energy α
Screening effect
4) Extent of penetration of Orbitals of Valence Electrons: Penetration power of orbitals depends

on the shapes of orbitals. Penetration power of orbitals is in the order s > p > d > f .Greater the
penetrating power higher is the ionisation potential.
∴I.P values of electrons in different orbitals of same energy level is in the order s > p > d > f
5) Half filled or completely filled Subshells: Atoms with half filled (or) completely filled
subshells are more stable. So I.P values of these atoms are high.
Example: I.P1 of N> I.P1 of oxygen, because N atom has stable half filled P-sub-shell
i.e. 2P3
2) State Modern periodic law. Justify the classification of elements into 4 blocks?
Ans. Modern periodic law states that “The physical and chemical properties of the elements and
their compounds are the periodic functions of their electronic configurations”.
Basing on the electronic configuration, elements are classified in to four blocks. They are
1. S-Block Elements:-
i) The position of s-block elements is on the left hand side of the periodic table
ii) In these elements the differentiating electron enters into the S-subshell of outer most orbit.
iii) s-block contains two groups IA and IIA (Groups1 & 2). These elements are called alkali metals
and alkaline earth metals.
iv) The general electronic configuration of IA group elements is nS1 and IIA group elements is nS2.
General Properties:-
a) Highly electropositive and reactive metals.
b) Do not occur in free state in nature, but only occur as their compounds.
c) They form M+ (IA), and M+2 ions (IIA). Their ions are colourless and diamagnetic.
2. P-Block Elements:-
i) The position of p-block elements is on the right hand side of the periodic table.
ii) In these elements the differentiating electron enters into the p-subshell of outermost orbit.
iii) p-block elements contain ‘6’ groups IIIA, IVA, VA, VIA, VIIA and ‘0’ groups
(From group 13 to 18). The general electronic configuration is nS2np1-6
OUTER
FAMILY GROUP ELECTRONIC
CONFIGURATION
Boron Family IIIA OR 13 ns 2 np1
Carbon Family IVA OR 14 ns 2 np 2
Nitrogen Family VA OR 15 ns 2 np 3
Oxygen Family VIA OR 16 ns 2 np 4
Halogen Family VIIA OR 17 ns 2 np 5
Noble Family 0 OR 18 ns 2 np 6
General Properties
a) p-block contains all non-metals, metalloids and few metals.
b) Electronegative in nature due to high electron gain enthalpies
c) They also share electrons to form covalent compounds
Ex:- Cl2 ,HCl
3. d-Block Elements:-
i) The position of d-block elements is in between s- and p-block elements in the long form periodic
table.
ii) In these elements, the differentiating electron enters into d-subshell of penultimate orbit.
[(n-1)d]. The elements of III B, IV B, V B, VI B, VII B, VIII (these rows), I B and II B

(Groups 3 to 12) are d-block elements.
iii) The general electronic configuration of these elements is (n-1)d1-10ns1or2
IV) Based on filling of differentiating electron d-block is divided into 4 series.
3d series- Sc (Z = 21) - Zn (Z = 30)
4d series- Y (Z = 39) - Cd (Z = 48)
5d series- La (Z = 57) - Hg (Z = 80)
6d series- Ac (Z = 89) - In complete
a) Hard and heavy metals with high M.P. and B.P.
b) They form mostly coloured ions
c) They show variable valency
d) They show para magnetic nature.
(Due to the presence of unpaired electrons in d-orbitals)
4. f-Block Elements:-
i). The f-block elements are placed at bottom of the periodic table
ii). In these elements, differentiating electron enters into f-subshell of anti penultimate Shell
i.e. (n-2)f
iii). f-block contains two series-lanthanides and actinides. Each series contains 14 elements.
Lanthanides are 58 Ce −71 Lu and actinides are 90 Th −103 Lr
iv). The general electronic configuration is ( n − 2 ) f 1−14 ( n − 1) d 0−1ns 2
v). These are also known as inner transition elements.

a)Most of these elements are Radio Active
b) They show +2 and +3 common oxidation states.
3) What is a periodic property? How the following properties vary in a group and in a period?
a) Atomic radius b) Ionisation enthalpy
c) Electro negativity d)Electron gain enthalpy.
Ans. Periodicity:
The repetition of properties of elements at regular intervals in the periodic table is called as periodic
properties and the phenomenon is known as periodicity.
a) Atomic radius: The distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outer most shell of an
atom is called as atomic radius.
In a period: Atomic size decreases from left to right in a period, because the effective nuclear
charge increases as the differentiating electron enters into the same shell.
In a group: in a group Atomic radius increases from top to bottom as differentiating electron enters
into different new shells.
b) Variation of ionisation energy in a group:

In a group from top to bottom I.P. decreases as atomic size and the screening effect increases.
Variation of ionisation enthalpy in a period:
In a period, the ionisation enthalpy increases with the increase in atomic number from left to
right as atomic size decreases and the effective nuclear charge increases .
i) Be has high ionisation energy than that of Boron as Be has stable complete filled 2s –
sublevel
ii) Similarly ‘N’ has high I.E. than ‘O’; due to the stable half filled 2p- sublevel in ‘N’
C) Electro Negativity:
The tendency of an atom to attract the bonded pair of electrons towards itself is called electro
negativity.
In a period:
From left to right in a period, electro negativity increases due to the decrease in atomic size.
In a group:
From top to bottom in a group, electro negativity decreases due to increase in atomic size.
* F is the most electronegative element.
d) Electron Gain Enthalpy:

The amount of energy released when an electron is added to the valence shell of neutral gaseous
atom is called as electron gain enthalpy or electron affinity.
In a period: Left to right in a period, electron affinity increases due to decrease in atomic size.
In a group: From top to bottom in a group, electron affinity decrease due to increase in atomic size.
1. Which element of 3rd period has the highest? Explain the variation of in this period?
Ans.
i) Argon (Ar) of 3rd period has the highest ionization energy
ii) The I.E increases across the period due to increase in nuclear charge. Therefore the
increasing order of I.E should be Na < Mg < Al < Si < S < Cl < Ar but the correct
order is Na < Mg > Al < Si < P > S < Cl < Ar
I.E of Mg is more than Al due to completely filled 3s-subshell and more penetrating power
of ‘s’ orbital than the ‘p’ orbital in case of Al.
I.E of ‘P’ is more than ‘S’ because ‘P’ has stable half filled p-orbitals i.e. 3p3.
2. What is valency of an element? How does it vary with respect to hydrogen in the third
period?
Ans. i). Valency is the combining capacity of an element.
ii). Valency with respect to hydrogen is number of hydrogen atoms with which one atom of
an element combine.
iii). Across a period from left to right, valency increases up to IVA group from 1 to 4 and
decreases to one in VIIA with respect to hydrogen.
iv). Each period starts with valency I and ends with zero. Valency = group number up to 4th
group and valency = (8) - (group number) from 5th group onwards
v). The valence of the element is useful in writing the formulae of compounds.
3. What is diagonal relationship? Give a pair of elements having diagonal relationship. Why
do they show this relation?
Ans. In the periodic table, an element of a group in the second period is similar in properties with
second element of next group in the third period. This type of relationship is known as
diagonal relationship.
Example: Li – Mg , Be – Al and B – Si
4. What is lanthanide contraction? What are its Consequences?

Ans. i). In lanthanides differentiating electron enters into 4f sub level. Due to peculiar shape and
poor shielding effect of f-orbitals, the increased nuclear charge (due to increase the atomic
number) attracts valence electrons firmly causing a steady decrease in the size of atom or ion.
ii). The contraction of size from one element to the other next in the lanthanide series is very
small. But cumulative effect over 14 lanthanide elements from Ce to Lu is about. This
decrease in size is significant and is known as lanthanide contraction
iii). This is more pronounced in +3 lanthanide ions.
iv). Consequences of lanthanide contraction
a) The melting points, boiling points and hardness of all the elements increases from Ce to
Lu
b) The crystal structures and other properties of lanthanides are almost similar. Therefore it is
not easy to seperate them from the mixture.
c) Inert pair effect is also a consequence of lanthanide contraction.
d) Due to this, pairs of elements such as Zr & Hf , Nb & Ta, Mo & W belonging to 4d and 5d
series of elements have almost similar radii.
5. Give any four characteristic properties of transition elements?

Ans. Elements in which the ultimate and penultimate shells (n and (n–1) shells) are partially filled
are called transition elements. Characteristic properties of transition elements are
(i). They are hard and heavy metals.
(ii). Their M.P, B.P and densities are very high.
(iii). They are good conductors of heat & electricity.
(iv). They show variable oxidation states.
(v). They form alloys.
VI) They show paramagnetism and Catalytic activity.
Very Short Answer Questions
1. An element ‘X’ has atomic number 34. Give its position in the periodic table.
Ans. Electronic configuration of X is [Ar]3d104s24p2 .As the valence shell is 4 ,X-belongs
to 4th period and as the valence shell contains 4 electrons it belongs to VIA group .
2. Among N-3 ,O-2 , F - , Na+ , Mg +2and Al +3
a. What is common in them?

b. Arrange them in the increasing ionic radii.
Ans. a. Number of electrons is common in all the above species. Each is having 10
electrons.
b. Al3+ < Mg 2+ < Na + < F− < O2− < N3−
3. What is screening effect? How is it related to IE?

Ans. In multy electron atoms t he electrons present in inner orbitals decrese the nuclear
attraction on the valence electrons. This is called Screening or Sheilding effect.
As the number of electrons in the inner shells increases, sheilding effect increases. So I.P
value decreases. In a given orbit the Sheilding effect caused various sublevels is in the order
s> p>d > f
1
Ionization energy α
Screening effect
4. Electron affinity of chlorine is more than that of fluorine - explain

Ans. The electron gain enthalpy of F is less negative than that of the succeeding element
(chlorine).
This is because when an electron is added to F, the added electron goes to the smaller n=2
quantum level and suffers significant repulsion from the other electrons present in this level.
For the n=3 quantum level (Cl) the added electron occupies a larger region of space and
electron-electron repulsion is much less.
5. Among the elements B, Al, C and Si.

a. Which has the highest first ionization enthalpy?
b. Which has the most negative electron gain enthalpy?
c. Which has the largest atomic radius?
d. Which has the most metallic character?
Ans: a. Carbon(C)
b. Silicon(Si)
c. Aluminium(Al)
d. Aluminium(Al)
6. Consider the elements N, P, O and S and arrange them in order of:

a. Increasing first inonization enthalpy?
b. Increasing negative electron gain enthalpy?
c. Increasing non-metallic character?
Ans. a. S<P<O<N b. N<P<O<S c. P<S<N<O
CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
1) What is meant by Hybridisation? Explain different types of Hybridisation involving S and

P orbitals?
Ans. The process of mixing of suitable atomic orbitals of an atom resulting in the formation of
new orbitals of similar shape and energy is called as hybridization of orbitals. The different
types of hybridization, involving S & P orbitals are.
SP hybridization: One “s” orbital and one “p” orbital mix to form two “SP” hybrid orbitals. They
have 50% “S” and 50% “p” character. Geometry of “SP” hybridized molecule is linear with bond
angle 1800.
Ex: BeCl2
Electronic configuration of be in ground state is 1S22S21S2
In excited state is 1S22S12p1
In the excited beryllium atom, ‘2s’ and ‘2px’ orbitals intermix to give two equivalent ‘sp’
hybrid orbitals. The electronic configuration of Cl is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3px2 3py2 3pz1. It has one
half filled ‘p’ orbital. The half filled 3pz orbitals of two chlorine atoms overlap with ‘sp’ hybrid
orbitals of beryllium atom in their axes to form two σ sp-p bonds. BeCl2 molecule has linear shape
with bond angle 180°.
180°
Cl Be Cl
S + sp sp
P
Cl Be Cl
Cl Be Cl
sp2 Hybridisation : The intermixing of one ‘s’ orbital and two ‘p’ orbitals to form three sp2 hybrid
orbitals. Each sp2 hybrid orbital has 33.33%‘s’ character and 66.66% ‘p’ character. Geometry of
“SP” hybridized molecule is trigonal planar with bond angle 1200.
Ex; BCl3
The central atom in BCl3 is boron. The electronic configuration of boron atom in its excited state is
1s2 2s1 2p2 i.e. 1s2 2s1 2p1x2 p1y . In the excited boron atom ‘2s’ orbital and two ‘2p’ orbitals
intermix to give three equivalent sp2 hybrid orbitals. In the formation of BCl3 molecule, three sp2
hybrid orbitals of boron overlap with half filled 3pz orbitals of three chlorine atoms to give three
σsp2 -p bonds. BCl3 molecule has trigonal planar structure with bond angle 120°.
sp2
120° Cl
+ σ
's' orbital sp2 sp2 σ B 120°
two 'p' orbitals 2
sp hybrid orbitals Cl σ Cl
sp3 Hybridization: The intermixing of one ‘s’ orbital and three ‘p’ orbitals to give four
equivalent sp3 hybrid orbitals is known as sp3 hybridisation. The four sp3 hybrid orbitals are
directed towards the four corners of a regular tetrahedron. The angle between any two sp3
hybrid orbitals is 109°281.
Ex: Methane Molecule
The central atom in CH4 is carbon. The electronic configuration of carbon atom in its excited
state is 1s22s12p3 i.e. 1s2 2s1 2p1x2p1y2p1Z
S + C
H H
4 sp3 hybrid
orbitals of carbon H
In the excited carbon atom, one ‘2s’ orbital and three ‘2p’ orbitals intermix to give four
equivalent ‘sp3’ hybrid orbitals. In the formation of methane molecule, four ‘sp3’ hybrid
orbitals of carbon overlap with ‘1s’ orbital of four hydrogens to give four σ sp3 -s bonds.
Methane molecule has tetrahedral shape with bond angle 109.5°.
2).Write the salient features of Molecular Orbital Theory?
Ans. Salient features of Molecular Orbital Theory developed by ‘Hund and Mulliken’ are
1) Electrons of atoms are present in atomic orbitals where as electrons of molecules are present
in molecular orbitals.
2) The number of molecular orbitals formed will be equal to the number atomic orbitals
combining.
3) The molecular orbitals whose energy is less than the atomic orbital are called as anti bonding
molecular orbitals and the orbitals whose energy is more than the atomic orbitals are called as
anti bonding molecular orbitals.
4) The molecular orbital, formed by the addition of atomic orbitals is called the bonding
molecular orbital and by subtraction of atomic orbitals is called antibonding molecular orbital.
5) Stability of bonding molecular orbital is more than that of anti bonding molecular orbital.
6) The electron probability distribution in a molecule is given by molecular orbital.
7) The filling of elections in molecular orbitals is similar to that of atomic orbitals
i.e.: in accordance to Hund’s rule paulis exclusion principle and Aufbau’s principle.
8) Atomic orbitals are homocentric. i.e.: influenced only by one nucleus where as molecular
orbitals is poly centric. i.e.: influenced by two nuclei
9) The combining atomic orbitals must have same or nearly same energy and same symmetry
along axes
Anti
Bonding
molecular
orbital
E Atomic
Atomic orbital
orbital
Bonding
molecular
orbital
3) What are the basic postulates of VSEPR theory? Discuss the shape of Methane and
Ammonia molecules on the basis of VSEPR theory?
Ans. Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory).
It was put forward by Sidgwick and Powell and later developed by Nyholm and Gillespie
1).It predicts the shapes of molecule based on the repulsive interactions between the electron pairs
in valence shell of atoms.
2).The shape of the molecule depends on the number of bonded and non bonded electron pairs
around central atom.
3·There is repulsion between electrons in valence shell as they are negatively charged.
4).To minimise repulsions the electrons tend to occupy positions with maximum separation between
them.
5).The repulsive forces decrease in the order LP-LP>LP-BP>BP-BP.
6).The presence of lone pairs on the central atom causes slight distortion of the bond angles from
the ideal shape. If the angle between a lone pair and the central atom and a bond pair is increased, it
follows that the actual bond angle between the atoms must be decreased.
4. Give the Molecular Orbital Energy diagram of a) N2 and O2. Calculate the respective bond
order. Write the magnetic nature of and molecules.
Ans. N2
Electronic Configuration. Of N2 (σ Is ) 2 (σ *1s ) 2 (σ 2 s ) 2 (σ * 2 s ) 2 (π 2 px 2 = π 2 p y 2 ) (σ 2 p z )2
N b − N a 10 − 4
Bond order = = =3
2 2
It is diamagnetic in nature as there are no unpaired electrons.
b) O2
EC of O2 = (σ Is ) 2 (σ *1s ) 2 (σ 2 s ) 2 (σ * 2 s ) 2 (σ 2 pz ) (π 2 px 2 = π 2 p y 2 )(π * 2 px1 = π * 2 p y1 )

2
N b − N a 10 − 6
Bond order in O2= = =2
2 2
O2 molecule is paramagnetic in nature as there are 2 unpaired electrons.
1. How do you predict the shapes of the following molecules making use of VSEPR theory?
a) XeF4 b) BrF5 c) ClF3 d) Icl-4
Ans. a) XeF4
It is AB4E2 type of molecule. It has 4 B P and 2 LP. Hence the shape is square planar and
arrangement is octahedral with two lone pairs.
F F
Xe
F F
b) BrF5
It is AB5E type of molecule with 5 BP and 1 LP. Hence the shape is square pyramidal and
arrangement is octahedral with one corner occupied by LP
F F
Br
F F
F
C) ClF3: It is AB3E2 type of molecule with 3 bond pairs and 2 LP. Hence the shape is T-Shape and
arrangement of electron pairs is Trigonal bipyramidal with two positions occupied by lone pairs.
F
F Cl
d) Icl-4
It is AB4E2 type of molecule with 4 bond pairs and 2 lone pairs the shape is octahedral with
2 position occupied by lone pairs
2. Explain the formation of coordinate Covalent bond with one Example?

Ans. A covalent bond is formed by sharing a pair of electrons. A special type of covalent bond is
formed in which the shared pair of electrons is contributed by one atom only. The atom which
donates the shared pair of electrons is called as donor and that which accepts the electrons is called
as acceptor. Such a bond results when a doubly filled orbital overlaps with an empty orbital of
another atom. The bond between two atoms in which one donates a pair of electrons and the other
accepts a pair of electrons is called as coordinate bond or dative bond.
+
NH3 + H+ H3N H
Coordinate bond is shown by an arrow which is directed from donor to acceptor.
3. Explain the hybridization involved in SF6 molecule?

Ans.
S-(GS)
(II ES)
One “s” and three “p” and two “d” orbitals of sulphur atom undergo sp3d2 hybridisation. These
6 sp3d 2 hybrid orbitals overlap with 6 singly occupied p – orbitals of fluorine atoms to form
6sp 3 d 2 − P sigma bonds.
F
F F
S
F F
Shape is regular octahedron F
4. Define Dipole moment. Write its applications?

Ans. Dipole moment can be defined as the product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance
between the charges. It is designed by µ.
µ = Qxd
Where µ dipole moment
Q is charge
D is distance (bond length)
It is expressed as de bye units (D) or coulomb meter (cm).
Dipole moment designated by a small arrow and it symbolizes the direction of shift of electron
density in the molecule
Applications:
1) It is used to decide the polarity of the molecule. Molecules with zero dipole moment are
non-polar and those with dipole moment are polar.
2) It is used to determine geometry of molecule.
Ex: CO2 , BeF2 are linear as µ=0.
3) It is also used to determine percentage of ionic character of a covalent bond.
Very Short Answer
1. How many sigma and Pi bonds are present in a) C2 H 2 and b) C2 H 4

Ans. In C2 H 2 number of sigma bonds are three and pi bond are two
In C2 H 4 number of sigma bonds are five and pi bond is one
2. Which of the two ions Ca+2 (or) Zn+2 is more stable and why?
Ans. Ca+2 is more stable than Zn+2 because
Ca+2 has octet configuration in valance shell where as Zn+2 has pseudo octet configuration in
valence shell (18 electron configuration). Octet configuration is more stable than pseudo
octet configuration.
STATES OF MATTER
Short Answer Questions:
1) State and explain Graham’s law of diffusion?
Ans. Graham’s law is stated as, at constant temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion of a gas is
inversely proportional to square root of its density.
The rate of diffusion (r) is related to the density (d) of gas by the equation -
1
r∝
d
As Density is directly proportional to the molecular weight (M) or vapour density (VD) of gas.
Graham’s law is also stated as; the rate of diffusion of gas is inversely proportional to the square
root of its molecular weight or vapour density.
1 1
r∝ (or )
M VD
The ratio of rates of diffusion of two gases under identical conditions of temperature and pressure
is given as -
r1 d2 M2 VD2
= = =
r2 d1 M1 VD1
r1 V1t2
The ratio of rates of diffusion of two gases is also related as - =
r2 V2t1
i. If volumes of two gases diffused are same, the ratio of times (t) taken for diffusion is given as
t2 M2
- =
t1 M1
ii. If times taken for the diffusion of two gases are same, the ratio of volumes (V) is given as -
V1 M2
=
V2 M1
Applications
1). Ansil alarm in coal mines for the detection of marsh gas is based on diffusion.
2). Atmolysis, a process of separation of uranium isotopes (U235 & U238) is also based on diffusion,
where the isotopes are converted to volatile uranium hexaflourides
3). Useful in the calculation of molecular weights and density of gases and vapours.
2) Write the postulates of kinetic theory of gases?
Ans. The postulates of the kinetic gas theory
1. Gases are made up of many small, tiny and discrete particles, called molecules.
2. Molecules of a gas are well separated from each other. The volume occupied by molecules of a
gas is negligible compared to the volume of gas. The mean free path is very high compared to the
diameter of the molecule.
3. Molecules of a gas are electrically neutral and they do not have attractions and repulsions
between them.
4. Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly in all the directions with high velocities.
5. Motion of gas molecules is not affected by the gravitational force.
6. Pressure exerted by a gas is due to collisions of molecules made on the inner walls of the vessel.
Pressure number of collisions on the inner walls.
7. During collisions there can be transfer of energy among the molecules, but the average kinetic
energy of gas is constant. Hence Collisions among gas molecules are perfectly elastic.
8. The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to absolute temperature of
the gas.
Kinetic energy ∝ absolute temperature.
3. State and explain Dalton’s law of Partial Pressures?
Ans. Dalton’s Law Of Partial Pressures:- At a given temperature, the total pressure exerted by
two or more non reacting gases occupying a definite volume is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures of the component gases.
Mathematically P = P1 + P2 +p3 ..... (T, V constant)

Where P1, P2 and P3are the partial pressures of the component gases respectively. In a mixture the
pressure exerted by the individual gas is known as its partial pressure
Partial pressure in terms of mole fraction :- Let n1 , n2 be the no. of moles of two non -reacting
gases A and B filled in a vessel of volume V at temperature T,
Total pressure in the vessel P may be calculated as PV = (n1 + n2 ) RT ……… (1)
Partial pressures may be calculated as PAV = n1 RT ...........(2)
PBV = n2 RT ...........(3)
Adding equation 2 & 3, we get ( PA + PB )V = ( n1 + n2 ) RT ........(4)
Comparing equation (1) and (4), we get. P = PA + PB
PA n1
= = XA
⇒ PA = Ptotal . X A
Dividing equation (2) and (1), we get P n1 + n2
⇒ PB = Ptotal . X B
Similarly dividing equation (3) and (1), we get
Hence partial pressure of a component = mole fraction x total pressure.
Applications of Dalton’s Partial Pressure Law:-
I. Water insoluble gases like N 2 , O2 , He, H 2 etc are collected over water. When a gas is collected
over water the observed pressure of the gas is equal to the sum of the pressures dry gas and pressure
Pmoist gas = Pdry gas + PwaterVapour

of water vapour.
⇒ Pdry gas = Pmoist gas − Aqueous tension
4. Deduce a). Boyle”s Law and b). Charle’s Law from kinetic gas equation?
Ans. a) Boyle’s Law
It states that at constant temperature, the volume of certain mass of a gas is inversely proportional to
its pressure.
mnC2 (or) PV =  mnC 2 

1 2 1
The kinetic gas equation PV =
3 32 
Kinetic energy of ‘n’ molecules of a gas is (1/2)mnC2 and is directly proportional to the absolute
1
temperature, mnC 2 = K.T
2
Where K is constant. ∴ PV = K.T
If temperature is constant then PV = constant
This is Boyle’s law
b). Charle’s Law: It states that, at constant pressure the volume of certain mass of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature.
1
The kinetic gas equation PV = mnc2
3
21 2 2
PV =  mnC  or PV = K.T
32  3
Since kinetic energy of n molecules of a gas is (1/2)mnC2 and is directly proportional to absolute
temperature.
2 K .T
V= , if pressure (P) is constant, then
3 P
V = constant × T (or) V ∝T
This is Charles’ law
5. Deduce a) Graham’s law and b) Dalton’s law from kinetic gas equation?
Ans. a) Graham’s Law:
1
The kinetic gas equation PV = mnC2
3
For one mole of a gas, with Avogadro number of molecules, the mass ‘mn’ becomes equal to gram
molecular weight, M.
1 3PV 3P
PV = MC2 (or) C = or C =
3 M d
Where density (d) is mass per volume.
The RMS velocity is a measure of rate of diffusion of gas.
1
At constant pressure, rate of diffusion is r ∝
d
This is Graham’s law of diffusion.
b) Dalton’s Law:
Consider a gas in a vessel of volume V. If the vessel contains n1 molecules of a gas with mass
of each molecule m1 and RMS velocity C1, the pressure (P1) is given from kinetic gas
equation-
1 m1n1C12
P1 =
3 V
If the gas in the vessel is replaced by another gas, the pressure (P2) is given in terms of n2
molecules of mass m2 each with RMS velocity C2 as -
1 m2 n2C22
P2 =
3 V
Suppose two gases are taken in the same vessel, with pressure of the mixture (P)
1 1
PV = m1n1C12 + m2 n2C22
3 3
Re-writing this
1 m1n1C12 1 m2 n2C22
P= +
3 V 3 V
P = P1 + P2
This is Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
6. Define a) RMS b) average and c) most probable speeds of gas molecules. Give their
interrelation ship?
Ans. RMS velocity
It is the square root of mean of squares of velocities of molecules present in the gas. It is denoted
by C. It is given by
c12 + c2 2 + c32 + ........ + cn2 3RT

C= Or C =
n M
Average velocity
It is the ratio of sum of the velocities of all gas molecules to the total number of molecules.
It is also called mean velocity. It is denoted by -
c1 + c2 + c3 + ........ + cn 8RT
C= Or C =
n πM
Most probable velocity
It is the velocity possessed by maximum number of molecules present in a given amount of gas. It
is denoted by Cp.
2 RT
Cp =
M
The ratio of three types of molecular velocities of a gas is given as,
2 RT 8RT 3RT
CP : C : C = : : (Or) C P : C : C = 1: 1.128: 1.224.
M πM M
C = C x 1.128 and C = 1.224 × Cp.
7. What is vapour pressure of liquids? How the vapour of a liquid is related to its boiling
point?
Ans. The pressure exerted by vapour molecules of a liquid in equilibrium, on the surface of the
liquid at a given temperature is called vapour pressure of the liquid.
Generally, the vapour pressure of a liquid is more, if the rate of evaporation is more. Vapour
pressure of a liquid depends up on: nature of liquid, temperature and purity of the liquid.
With increase in the temperature the vapour pressure of a liquid increases exponentially but not
linearly. The temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid becomes equal to one bar
pressure is called standard boiling point of the liquid.
8). Calculate the RMS velocity, average velocity and most probable velocity of CO2 at 270C?
Solution: Absolute temperature = T = 300 K
Gram molecular weight = M = 44 g mol–1
Gas constant = R = 8.314 × 107 erg k–1 mol–1
3RT 3 × 8.314 × 300 × 107

RMS velocity (C) = = = 4.12 ×104 cm s −1 =412 ms-1
M 44
Most probable velocity (Cp) = 0.8166 × C = 0.8166 × 412 = 336 ms_1
Average velocity = = 0.9213 x 412 = 381 ms–1
9. 300cc of methane diffused through a porous membrane in 15min. Under identical

conditions 120cc of gas ‘X’ diffused in 10 min. Calculate the molecular weight of ‘X’?
Solution:
Rate of diffusion of methane = 300 / 15 = 20 cc m–1,
Rate of diffusion of gas ‘X’ = 120 / 12 = 10 cc m–1
Ratio of rates of diffusion is given as
r1 M2 M2 M2
= = 20 . ⇒2=
r2 M1 10 M1 16
Molecular weight of ‘X’ = 22 × 16 = 64
1. What is an absolute Temperature?
Ans. Temperature expressed in kelvin scale is called absolute temperature. This is denoted by T.
T (in K) = (t°C + 273) K.
2). Why is gas constant (R) called universal gas constant?
Ans. ‘R’ is called universal gas constant as its value is same for all gases at S.T.P
3. What is an ideal gas?
Ans. The Gas which obeys Boyle’s law, Charle’s law and Avogadro’s law is called an ideal gas.
4.What are standard temperature and pressure conditions? What is the volume of one mole of
an ideal gas under these conditions?
Ans. The temperature 273.15K (0oC) and the pressure 1 bar i.e., exactly 105 Pascals are called
standard temperature and pressure conditions. At STP conditions the molar volume is 22.711
lit. mol–1
5). Which gas diffuses faster among N2, O2, CH4 gases? Why?
1
Ans. CH4 diffuses faster as its molecular weight is lower than reaming two gases. r ∝
M
6. How many times methane diffuses faster than sulphur dioxide?
rCH 4 M SO2 64
Ans. = = = 2 . Methane diffuses 2 times faster than sulphur dioxide
rSO2 M CH 4 16
7. Give the relation between partial pressure and mole fraction of a gas?
Ans. Partial pressure = Total pressure X Mole-fraction
8.What is Boltzmann constant? Write its value?
Ans. Boltzmann constant is the gas constant per one molecule. It is given as the ratio of Universal
gas constant and Avogadro number.
R
k= the value of Boltzmann constant, k = 1.38 x 10–23J K–1 molecule –1
N0
9. Find the kinetic energy of 2 moles of an ideal gas in calories at 27°C?
3
Ans. Kinetic energy is given as (K.E.) = nRT
2
3
= x2x2x300 = 1800calories.
2
10. Why RMS velocity is used in the derivation of kinetic gas equation?
Ans. RMS velocity is used in the derivation of kinetic gas equation as it is the most accurate
velocity among the three types of velocities of a gas and it represents the velocity of all gas
molecules
11. What is Boyle Temperature?
Ans. The temperature at which real gas behaves like ideal gas and obeys the gas laws over a wide
range of pressure is called Boyle temperature or Boyle point and is denoted by ‘Tb’
12. What is compressibility factor?
Ans. The ratio of real volume of a gas to that of its ideal volume is called compressibility factor. It
is a measure to deviation from ideal gas behavior.
molar volumeof the gas (V )

Compressibility factor (Z) =
molar volumeof perfect gas (V perfect )
Or Z = PV / nRT (per n moles of gas)
13. What is critical temperature? What is the critical temperature of the CO2 gas?
Ans. The temperature above which the gas can’t be liquefied by the application of pressure is called
critical temperature (Tc). For CO2 gas critical temperature is 31.10C.
14. What are critical pressure and critical volume?
Ans. The pressure of a gas at its critical temperature is called critical pressure (Pc).
The Volume of one mole of gas at critical temperature (Tc) and critical pressure (Pc) is called
critical volume (Vc)
15. What is coefficient of viscosity? Give its units?
Ans. Viscosity coefficient is defined as the force when velocity gradient and area of contact each
is unity. It is a measure of viscosity. Its units dynes.cm−2 .sec org.cm−1.sec−1 = 1 poise.
16. Calculate the kinetic energy of 5 moles of Nitrogen at 27°C?
3 3
Ans. Kinetic energy is given as (K.E.) = nRT= x5x8.314 x300 = 18706.5 J.
2 2
17. Calculate the kinetic energy (in S.I units) of 4 gm of methane at -73°C?
Ans. No. of moles of methane, n=4/16=0.25
3
Kinetic energy is given as (K.E.) = nRT
2
3
= x0.25x8.314 x200 = 623.6 J.
2
STOICHIOMETRY
1. Balance the following redox reaction by ion- electron method taking place in acidic
medium
− 3+ −
. Cr2O7 + NO2 → Cr + NO3
2−
Solution: Writing oxidation numbers

+6 −2 +3 −2 +3 +5 −2
Cr2 O7−2 + N O2− → Cr +3 + N O3−
Locating atoms undergoing change in oxidation numbers
+6 +3 +3 +5
Cr2 O + N O → Cr + N O3−
−2
7
−
2
+3
Dividing the reaction into two halves and balancing in acidic medium, separately
Oxidation half-reaction: Reduction half-reaction
N O2− → N O3− Cr2 O7−2 → 2Cr +3
Step1:Balance oxygen atoms
N O2− + H 2O → N O3− Cr2 O7−2 → 2Cr +3 + 7 H 2O
Step2: Balance hydrogen atoms in acidic medium
N O2− + H 2O → N O3− + 2 H + Cr2 O7−2 + 14 H + → 2Cr +3 + 7 H 2O
Step3: Balance the charge
N O2− + H 2O → N O3− + 2 H + + 2e− ...... (a) Cr2 O7−2 + 14 H + + 6e− → 2Cr +3 + 7 H 2O

…… (b)
Equalising the electrons and adding the two halves.
eq (a) × 3 + eq (b) × 1, we get
3N O2− + 3H 2O → 3N O3− + 6 H + + 6e −
Cr2 O7−2 + 14 H + + 6e− → 2Cr +3 + 7 H 2O
Cr2 O7−2 + 3N O2− + 8H + → 2Cr +3 + 3N O3− + 4 H 2O . This is the balanced equation.
2. Balance the following redox reaction by ion electron method taking place in acidic medium
MnO4−1 + SO3−2 → Mn 2 + + SO4−2
Solution: Writing oxidation numbers

+7 −2 +4 −2 +2 +6 −2
Mn O4− + S O3−2 → Mn +2 + S O4−2

+7 +4 +2 +6
MnO + S O → Mn+2 + S O4−2
−
4
−2
3
Dividing the reaction into two halves and balancing in acidic medium, separately
Oxidation half-reaction: Reduction half-reaction:
SO32− → SO42− MnO4− → Mn +2
Step1:Balance oxygen atoms
SO32− + H 2O → SO42− MnO4− → Mn+2 + 4 H 2O
Step2: Balance hydrogen atoms in acidic medium
SO32− + H 2O → SO4 2− + 2 H + MnO4− + 8H + → Mn +2 + 4 H 2O
Step3: Balance the charge
SO32− + H 2O → SO42− + 2 H + + 2e− ...... (a)
MnO4− + 8H + + 5e− → Mn +2 + 4 H 2O .... (b)
Equalising the electrons and adding the two halves.
eq (a) × 5 + eq (b) × 2, we get
5SO32− + 5 H 2O → 5SO42− + 10 H + + 10e−
2MnO4− + 16 H + + 10e− → 2Mn +2 + 8H 2O
2MnO4− + 5SO32− + 6 H + → 2Mn+2 + 5SO42− + 3H 2O
This is the balanced equation.
3. Iodate oxidises chromic hydroxide and gives iodide and chromate in basic medium.
Solution: The ionic skeleton equation is written as

−
IO3− + Cr (OH )3 
OH
→ I − + CrO4−2
Writing oxidation numbers

+5 −2 + 3 − 2 +1 −1 +6 −2
I O + Cr (OH )3 → I − + Cr O4−2
−
3

+5 +3 −1 +6
I O3− + Cr (OH )3 → I − + Cr O4−2
Dividing the reaction into two halves and balancing in basic medium, separately
→ CrO4 −2
Cr (OH )3  IO3− 
→I−
Step1: Balance oxygen atoms
→ CrO4 −2
Cr (OH )3 + H 2O  IO3− 
→ I − + 3H 2O
Step2: Balance hydrogen atoms
Cr (OH )3 + H 2O + 5OH − 
→ CrO4 −2 + 5 H 2O IO3− + 6 H 2O 
→ I − + 3H 2O + 6OH −
Step3: Balance charge
Cr (OH )3 + 5OH − 
→ CrO4−2 + 4 H 2O + 3e− ...... (a) IO3− + 3H 2O + 6e− 
→ I − + 6OH − …... (b)
Equalising the elements and adding the two halves
eq (a) × 2 + eq (b) × 1, we get
2Cr (OH )3 + 10OH − 

→ 2CrO4 −2 + 8 H 2O + 6e−
IO3− + 3H 2O + 6e− 
→ I − + 6OH −
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
IO3– + 2Cr (OH)3 + 4OH– → I– + 2 CrO42- + 5H2O This is the balanced equation.
4. White phosphorous reacts with aqueous caustic soda to give hypophosphite and phosphine.
Solution: The ionic skeleton equation is
−
P4 
OH
→ PH 3 + H 2 PO2−
Writing oxidation numbers

0 −3 +1 +1 +1 −2
−
P4 → P H 3 + H P O 2 2

0 −3 +1
P4 → P H 3 + H 2 P O2−
d) Dividing the reaction into two halves and balancing in acidic medium, separately

→ H 2 PO2−
P4  P4 
→ PH 3
Step1: Balance phosphorous atoms
→ 4 H 2 PO2−
P4  P4 
→ 4 PH3
Step2: Balance oxygen atoms
→ 4 H 2 PO2−
P4 + 8 H 2O  P4 
→ 4 PH3
Step3:Balance hydrogen atoms
P4 + 8 H 2O + 8OH − 
→ 4 H 2 PO2− + 8 H 2O → 4 PH 3 + 12OH −
P4 + 12 H 2O 
Step4: Balance charge
P4 + 8OH − 
→ 4 H 2 PO2− + 4e− ..... ( a) P4 + 12 H 2O + 12e− 
→ 4 PH 3 + 12OH − …(b)
Equalising the electrons and adding the two halves
eq (a) × 3 + eq (b) × 1, we get
3P4 + 24OH − 
→12 H 2 PO2− + 12e −
P4 + 12 H 2O + 12e− 
→ 4 PH 3 + 12OH −
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
4 P4 + 12OH − + 12 H 2O 
→ 4 PH 3 +12 H 2 PO2−
P4 + 3OH − + 3H 2O 
→ PH 3 +3H 2 PO2− . This is the balanced equation.
5. A carbon compound contains 12.8% carbon, 2.1% hydrogen, 85.1% bromine. The
molecular weight of the compound is 187.9. Calculate the molecular formula.
Solution:
Step1: Percentage composition of the elements present in the compound.
C H Br
12.8 2.1 85.1
Step2: Dividing with the respective atomic weights of the elements.
12.8/12= 1.067 2.1/1= 2.1 85.1/80= 1.067
Step3: Dividing by the smallest number to get simple atomic ratio.
1.067/1.067= 1 2.1/1.067= 2 1.067/1.067= 1
The empirical formula is CH2Br. Empirical formula weight 12 + (2 x 1) + 80 = 94
The molecular weight = 187.9 (given)
187.9
n= =2
94
The molecular formula = (empirical formula)2 = ( CH 2 Br )2 = C2 H 4 Br2
6. What are disproportination and Comproportination reaction? Give one example to each.
Ans). The reactions in which the same element undergoing both oxidation and reduction
simultaneously are called Disproportionation.
Examples;
a) Reaction of white phosphorous in aqueous caustic soda solution.
P4+3NaOH+3H2O →PH3+3NaH2PO2
b) Reaction of hot concentrated potash with bromine.
6KOH + 3Br2 → 5KBr + KBrO3 + 3H2O
Comproportionation: The reverse of disproportionation is comproportionation. In a

comproportionation reaction, two species with the same element in two different oxidation
states form single product. The element in the product is in an intermediate oxidation state,
between that in reactants.
Ex; Divalent silver oxidises metallic silver and it self is reduced to monovalent silver.
AgSO4 + Ag →Ag2SO4
7. Calculater the molarity of NaOH in a solution prepared by dissolving 4gm in enough water
to form 250ml of the solution.
weightofsoluteX 1000 4 X 1000

Solution: Molarity = = = 0.4M
GMWXvolumeofsolutioninml 40 X 250
1. How many moles of glucose are present in 540 gm of glucose?

Ans. Molar mass of glucose is 180gm
Number of moles= weight/GMW= 540/180= 3moles.
2. Calculate the weight of 0.1 mole of Na2CO3?

Ans. Weight of 0.1 mole of Na2CO3= moles GMW= 0.1x106=10.6 gm
3.How many glucose molecules are present in 5.23 gm of glucose (Molecular weight of glucose
is 180U)?
Ans. GMW i.e. 180 gm of Glucose= 6.023x1023 molecules.
5.23 gm of glucose = ?
5.23
∴ No. of glucose molecules= X 6.023 X 1023 = 1.75 x 1022 molecules
180
4. Calculate the number of molecules present in 1.12 x 10–7 c.c. of a gas a STP?
Solution: At STP, 22400 cc = 6.022 × 1023 molecules
At STP, 1.12 x 10–7 c.c =?
Number of molcecules present in 1.12 x 10–7 c.c at STP

−7
= 1.12 X 10 X 6.023 × 1023 = 3.01 x 1012
224 00
5. Empirical formula of a compound is CH2O molecular weight is 90, find molecular formula
of that compound?
Solution: Empirical formula of the compound = CH2O
Empirical formula weight = (12) + (2 x 1) + 1(1 x 16) = 30
Molecular weight given = 90
Molecular weight 90
∵ n= = =3
Empirical formula weight 30
Molecular formula =( Empirical formula)Xn= (CH2O) X3 = C3 H6O3

6. Calculate the oxidation number of chromium in (i) Cr2O7-2 (ii) CrO4-2

Ans. Oxidation number of chromium in (i) Cr2O7-2 = 2x +7(-2) = -2 ⟹x=+6
(ii) CrO4-2= x+4(-2)= -2 ⟹x=+6
7. Calculate the volume occupied by 2.5 Moles of a gas at STP?

Ans. volume of 1mole of a gas at STP= 22.4 lit
∴ Volume of 2.5 moles of a gas at STP= 2.5 X22.4 lit= 56 lit.
8. What volume of CO2 is obtained at STP by heating 10gms of CaCO3?
Ans. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
1 mole of CaCO3 gives 1 mole of CO2 i.e. 22.4 lit at STP
i.e. 100 gms of CaCO3 gives 22.4 lit CO2at STP
10
∴ Volume of CO2 at STP given by 10 gms CaCO3 = X 22.4 = 2.24lit
100
9. State (i) Law of definite proportions (ii) Law of multiple proportions
Ans. (i) Law of definite proportions states that “A given chemical substance always contains the
same elements combined in a fixed proportion by weight.”
(ii) Law of multiple proportions states that “If two elements chemically combine to give two or
more compounds, then the weight of one element which combine with fixed weight of the other
element in those compounds bear a simple multiple ratio to one another”.
10. What is a red-ox reaction? Give an example?
Ans. The reaction in which both oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously is called a
Red-Ox reaction.
Ex; Zn + CuSO4 
→ Cu +ZnSO4
In the above reaction zinc under goes Oxidation and copper ion under goes reduction.
THERMODYNAMICS
1. Define heat capacity .What are Cp and Cv? Show that Cp –CV=R?
Ans. The heat required raising the temperature of the system by 1oC or 1o Kelvin is called its
heat capacity (C). For a small change in temperature (dT), if the heat required is (dq)
dq
dC = .
dT
There are two types of heat capacities, at constant volume (Cv) and at constant pressure (Cp).
The heat capacity at constant volume gives the change in internal energy of the system at constant
temperature, C v =  ∂ E 
 ∂T  v
If a system absorbs heat at constant pressure, then heat capacity is given as,
 ∂H   dE   dV  (∵ H = E + PV )
Cp =   p orC p =   p + P 
 ∂T   ∂T 
p
 dT 
Relationship between Cp and Cv
In case of ideal gases, H = E + PV
Differentiating with respect to temperature, dH = d E + d ( P V )

dT dT dT
Ideal gas equation for one mole of gas is, PV = RT, where R is molar gas constant.
∴ dH = dE + d ( RT ) or dH = dE + R  dT 
dT dT dT dT dT  dT 
dH dE ∴ Cp – Cv = R
− = R
dT dT
2. What are intensive and extensive properties? Give examples?

Ans. The property of the system that depends on the total amount of the material present in the
system is called an extensive property.
E.g.: Mass, volume, heat capacity, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs energy etc.
The property of the system that does not depend on the total amount of the material present
in the system is called an intensive property.
E g: Density, viscosity, surface tension, specific heat, boiling point, freezing point, pressure,
temperature,
3. What is standard enthalpy of formation? Explain it with examples?
Ans. Enthalpy of formation

At constant temperature, the amount of heat liberated or absorbed when one mole of a compound is
formed from its elements is called enthalpy of formation. If all the reactants and the products are
in the standard states, then the enthalpy of reaction is called standard enthalpy of formation. It is
denoted by ∆ H of .
Enthalpy of formation in general may be positive or negative.

E.g.: 1) Formation of Ammonia, 1
2 N 2( g ) + 23 H 2 ( g ) → NH 3( g ) , ∆ H of = −46.35 KJ
2) Formation of NO (g), 1
2 N 2( g ) + 12 O2 ( g ) → NO( g ) , ∆ H of = +90.4 KJ
4. State and explain Hess law of constant heat summation?
Ans. Hess law of constant heat summation is stated as,” the total enthalpy change during the
complete course of a reaction is same whether the reaction is made in one step or in several steps”.
Method 1, direct formation of the product in a single step. A → P ; ∆H = Q
Method 2, Product is formed indirectly by proceeding in several steps.
A → B ; ∆H = q1 A P
B → C ; ∆H = q2 B C
C → P ; ∆H = q3
According to Hess law, Q = q1 + q2 + q3

E.g.: CO2 (g) is obtained from C (graphite) and O2 (g) in two different ways
a) C gra ph ite + O 2 g → C O 2 g , ∆ H = − 3 9 3 .5 2 K J
( ) ( ) ( )
( g r a p h ite ) + O 2 ( g ) → C O ( g ) , ∆ H = − 1 1 0 .5 k J
b) C 1
2
C O (g ) + 1
2 O 2 ( g ) → C O 2 ( g ) , ∆ H = − 2 8 3 .0 2 K J
Total ∆H = −110.5kJ + (-283.02) = -393.52.

The total enthalpy change in one step reaction is same as in two step process. Hence Hess law is
proved.
5. What is entropy? Explain with examples?
Ans. The thermo dynamical quantity which measures disorder of molecules or randomness of the
system is called Entropy. It is denoted by ‘S’. The entropy change ( ∆S ) between any two states of
the same substance at equilibrium is given as,
∆S = q rev / T . Here qrev is the heat absorbed by the system isothermally and reversibly at the
equilibrium temperature (T) during the transformation. The units of ∆S are J mol–1 K–1. Entropy is
a state function and is an extensive property.
Ex: Ice ⇌ Water ⇌ Vapour .The order of entropy is S(g) > S(l) > S(s)
Entropy increases in all spontaneous processes
6. State second law of Thermodynamics. What do you understand by it?
Ans. Second law of thermodynamics states that

Heat cannot flow form colder body to hotter body by its own.
(Or)
Heat cannot be converted into work completely without causing some permanent changes in the
system or in the surroundings.
* It is impossible to take heat from a hot reservoir and convert it completely into work by a cyclic
process, without transferring a part of it to a cold reservoir.
* A machine which transforms heat from low temperature region to high temperature region without
the intervention of external agency is called perpetual motion machine of the second kind. Second
law of thermodynamics rules out the existence of machine of the second kind.
A volatile liquid in an open vessel vapourises at any temperature without intervention of any
external agency. Therefore vapourisation of a liquid is spontaneous as per second law of
thermodynamics. All natural processes are spontaneous and are thermodynamically irreversible.
7.What are the criteria for the spontaneity of chemical reaction?

Ans. Spontaneity: 1.An exothermic reaction is believed to occur readily and spontaneously.
Therefore, negative enthalpy change is one of the criteria for the spontaneity of the reaction.
But there are reactions which are endothermic by nature, but still they are spontaneous.
Hence, negative enthalpy change is a required condition for the spontaneity of the reaction, but it is
not necessary and sufficient condition.
2. The reactions with positive entropy change take place spontaneously. Therefore positive entropy
change is one of the criteria for the spontaneity of a reaction. But there are reactions with negative
entropy change, but still they are spontaneous.
3. In order to explain the spontaneous nature of a process, Gibb introduced a new thermodynamic
parameter called Gibbs energy (or) Gibbs function (G) that accounts for both exothermicity and
entropy.
G = H – TS.
G is state function and extensive property.
For a process ∆G( sys ) = ∆H ( sys ) − T ∆S( sys ) , ∆G sys = −T ∆STotal
If G = –ve, the process is spontaneous.

G = +ve, the process is non spontaneous
G = 0, the system is in equilibrium state
∆H ∆S ∆G Nature of reation
−ve +ve −ve at all spontaneous at
temperature all temperatures
+ve −ve +ve at all Non spontaneous at

temperature all temperatures
−ve −ve −ve at low spontaneous at

temperature low temperature,
+ve at high non spontaneous at
temperature high temperature.
+ve +ve +ve at low non spontaneous at

temperature low temperature,
−ve at high spontaneous at
temperature high temperature.
8. State and explain the third law of thermodynamics?

Ans. Third law of thermodynamics
At the absolute zero temperature, the entropy of a pure and perfectly crystalline substance is
zero.
This is known as third law of thermodynamics and has not much significance, except that
imposes a limitation on the absolute value of entropy.
T
Cp
ST →O = 0 (or) ST = ∫ dT
0
T
1. What is a thermo chemical equation? Give example?
Ans. The balanced chemical equation accompanied with the enthalpy changes of the process and the
physical states of the reactants and the products is called thermo chemical equation.
Example: C (graphite) + O2 (g) CO2(g) ; H= – 393.5 kJ
2. State the first law of thermodynamics?
Ans. First law of thermodynamics is also known as law of conservation of energy. It states that
The energy in a process may be transformed from one form into the other form, but it is neither
created nor destroyed. (OR)In any process the sum of energies of the system and surroundings is
constant. The total energy is conserved in a given process.
(OR) A machine which operates in cycles and produce work without any expenditure of energy on
it is called perpetual machine of the first kind. First law of thermodynamics rules out the existence
of motion machine of the first kind.
3). How are ∆U and ∆H are related for a gaseous equilibrium reaction?
Ans. ∆H = ∆U + ∆nRT , Where U Heat of reaction at constant volume, H Heat of reaction at

constant pressure and ∆n = nP − nR
nP = no. of moles of Gaseous Products, nR = no. of moles of Gaseous Reactants.
4. What is heat of a reaction?

Ans. The amount of heat evolved or absorbed when the chemical reaction takes place between the
reactants as indicated in the stoichiometric equation is called the heat of reaction
The heat of a reaction H may be +ve or –Ve
5. What is heat of combustion? How is it determined using bomb calorimeter?

Ans. The change in enthalpy when one mole of the substance is completely burnt (oxidised) in
oxygen is called the heat of combustion or the enthalpy of combustion.
Eg. i) H2(g)+1/2 O2(g) → H2O(l), H =–286KJ
Here, H represents enthalpy of combustion of H2.
6. Define heat of formation. Write suitable examples?

Ans. The change in heat content when one mole of a compound in the standard state is formed from
its constituent elements in their standard state is called the Standard heat of formation.
E g. i) H2 (g) +1/2 O2(g)→H2O(l), ∆H =–286KJ Here, H represents Standard heat of
formation of H2O.
ii) C (graphite) +O2 (g)→CO2(g), H =– 393 KJ Here, H represents Standard heat of
formation of C(graphite)
7. Define heat of neutralization. Write the basic equation?

Ans. The change in enthalpy when one gram equivalent weight of an acid is completely neutralised
by one gram-equivalent weight of a base in dilute solution is called the heat of neutralisation or
enthalpy of neutralization The heat of neutralisation of any strong acid by any strong base is equal
to -13.7K cal or -57.3K.J.
Net reaction is given by H + ( aq ) + OH − ( aq ) → H 2O( l ) ; ∆H = −13.7 K .Cal
8. Define Heat of solution. Give an example?
Ans. The change in enthalpy when 1 mole of the solute is dissolved in a large quantity (infinite
quantity) of the solvent is known as heat of solution.
H 2O( excess )
E.g. MgSO4 ( s )  → MgSO4 (aq ), ∆ H = −84.42KJ/ mole
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND ACIDS-BASES
1. Write the Important Characteristics of Equilibrium?
Ans. The important characteristics of chemical equilibrium:
I) At equilibrium state, the rate of the forward reaction is equal to that of the reverse reaction.
ii) All the reactants and all the products of the reaction are present at equilibrium.
iii) Properties like concentration, pressure, intensity of colour remain unchanged with time after
the equilibrium is established.
IV) The same equilibrium can be attained by carrying out the reaction starting with the reactants or
starting with the products.
v) The equilibrium is not static. It is dynamic. Since forward and backward reactions are not ceased
at equilibrium.
VI). Change in temperature, pressure or concentration of substances may change the position of
equilibrium.
vii) Addition of a catalyst to the reaction does not alter the position of equilibrium. It only speeds
up the attainment of equilibrium.
viii) At equilibrium change in free energy G = 0
2. State Lechatelier’s principle. Apply the Lechatelier’s principle in the manufacture of

ammonia from the following equilibrium?
N 2 ( g ) + 3H 2 ( g ) 2 NH 3 ( g ), ∆H = −92kJ
Ans. Le Chatelier Principle: It states that “If a chemical reaction at equilibrium is subjected to any
change in pressure or temperature or concentration then the equilibrium position shifts in the
direction in which the applied change is reduced”.
Application to manufacture of ammonia by Haber’s process: The chemical equation

denoting the synthesis of ammonia from its elements is,
N 2 ( g ) + 3H 2 ( g ) 2 NH 3 ( g ), ∆H = −92kJ
It is an exothermic reaction and in forward reaction number of moles decreases.
Effect of Concentration: According to Le Chatelier principle increase in the concentration of

reactants (i.e. N2 or H2 or both) and removing product i.e. ammonia from the vessel from time to
time favouring the formation of more ammonia.
Effect of Pressure: According to Le Chatelier principle, increase in pressure on a system at

equilibrium will shift the equilibrium in the direction in which pressure is reduced or decrease in
number of moles. Four moles of reactants produce two moles of products in Haber’s synthesis.
Since the moles is decreased, high pressure must favour the formation of ammonia and shifts
the equilibrium state towards right.
Effect of Temperature: According to Le Chatelier principle low temperature is favourable

for an exothermic reaction. As the formation of ammonia is exothermic low temperature favours
the formation of ammonia and shifts the equilibrium state towards right. However, moderate
temperature is used experimentally as the reaction is slow at low temperature.
Introduction of a catalyst iron at the reaction temperature, favours the reaction, as the catalyst
helps increasing the rate of reaction and also makes the attainment of equilibrium fast.
Optimum conditions of Haber’s ammonia synthesis are:
a) High pressure, 200 – 300 atm.
b) Low but an optimum temperature of 725 – 775K
c) Removal of ammonia by liquification
d) Use of iron as catalyst and molybdenum or mixture of K2O and Al2O3 as promoter.
3.What is the relationship between KP and KC.Derive the relationship between KP and KC
for the equilibrium reaction N 2 ( g ) + 3H 2 ( g ) 2 NH 3 ( g ) .
Ans. The relationship between KP and KC is K p = Kc ( RT )∆n where n=moles of gaseous products-
moles of gaseous reactants.
Derivation of the relationship between KP and KC For N 2 ( g ) + 3H 2 ( g ) 2 NH 3 ( g )
Let [N2].[H2] and [NH3] are the molar concentrations of N2, H2 and NH3at equilibrium
respectively.
By applying law of mass action, the rate of forward reaction ‘rf is rf = kf [N2] [H2]3
And the rate of backward reaction ‘rb’ is rb = kb [NH3]2

At equilibrium, rf = rb
kf [NH 3 ]2
Therefore kf [N2]1 [H2]3 = kb [NH3]2 or = = Kc
kb [ N 2 ] [ H 2 ]3
According to ideal gas equation, PV = nRT, where P is the pressure, n is the number of
moles, V is the volume of the vessel and T is the absolute temperature.
n
P= RT = []RT , [ ] is the concentration
V
P N2 = [N2] RT , P H2 = [H2] RT and P NH3 = [NH3] RT
Substituting the values in Kp expression. We get
[ NH 3 ] ( RT ) 2 [ NH 3 ] ( RT )−2 = K ( RT )−2
2 2
PNH3 2
KP = = =
× PH 3 [ N 2 ] ( RT ) [ H 2 ]3 ( RT )3 [ N 2 ][ H 2 ]3
C
PN 2 2
∴ K P = K C ( RT )−2
4. Derive the relationship between KP and Kc For the equilibrium reaction

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌2SO3 (g)
Ans. Let [SO2].[O2] and [SO3] are the molar concentrations of SO2, O2 and SO3at equilibrium
respectively.
By applying law of mass action, the rate of forward reaction ‘rf’ is rf = kf [SO2]2[O2]
And the rate of backward reaction ‘rb’ is rb = kb [SO3]2

At equilibrium, rf = rb
kf [ SO3 ]2
Therefore kf [SO2]2[O2] = kb [SO3]2 or = = Kc
kb [ SO2 ]2 [O2 ]
∴ KC =
[ SO ] 3
2
[ SO ] [O ]
2
2
2
According to ideal gas equation, PV = nRT, where P is the pressure, n is the number of
moles, V is the volume of the vessel and T is the absolute temperature.
n
P= RT = []RT , [ ] is the concentration
V
P so2 = [SO2] RT, P o2 = [O2] RT and P so3= [SO3] RT
Substituting the values in Kp expression. We get
[ SO3 ] ( RT )2 [ SO3 ] ( RT )−1 = K ( RT )−1

2 2
PSO3 2
KP = = =
PSO2 2 × PO2 [ SO2 ] ( RT )2 [O2 ] ( RT ) [ SO2 ] [O2 ]
2 2 C
∴ K P = K C ( RT ) −1
5. What are homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria? Give examples?

Ans. Homogeneous equilibrium: The equilibrium in which both reactants and products are in the
same phase is called a homogeneous equilibrium.
Examples:
1. Thermal decomposition of ammonia.
2NH3 (g) ⇌N2 (g) + 3H2(g)
2. Oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide.

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌2SO3 (g)
Heterogeneous Equilibrium: The equilibrium in which reactants and products are in two or more
phases is called a heterogeneous equilibrium.
Examples:
1. Thermal decomposition of lime stone in a closed vessel.
CaCO3(s)⇌CaO(s) + CO2(g)
2. Decomposition of ammonium bisulphide in a closed vessel.
NH4HS(s) ⇌NH3 (g) + H2S(g).
6. What is conjugate acid-base pair? Give four examples?
Ans. An acid –base pair which differ structurally by a single proton is called
a conjugate acid-base pair.
Acid ⇌Proton + Conjugate base
HCl ⇌ Cl- + Proton
∴ Cl- is the Conjugate base of HCl
Ex; In the reaction HCl + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + Cl–,

HCl and Cl- are one conjugate acid-base pair & H O+ and H O is another conjugate acid-base
3 2
pair.
7. Define ionic product of water .What is its value at room temperature?
Ans. The product of molar concentration of proton (H+) or H3O+ and hydroxyl ions (OH–) present
in pure water at a given temperature is called as ionic product of water (Kw).
Kw = [H+] [OH–] or Kw = [H3O+] [OH–]
The value of Kw at room temperature is 1 × 10–14 mol2 L–2.
As the temperature increases the degree of ionisation of water increases and Kw increases.
Very Shot Answer Questions

∆

1. The equilibrium constant for the reaction, 2x + y ←→ x2 y is 10 L2mol–2. The rate

constant for the backward reaction 28 s–1. What is the rate constant of the forward
reaction?
Kf Kf
Solution: Equilibrium constant, Kc = , = 10 . ∴ K f = 10 X 28 = 280
K b 28
Hence the Forward rate constant, kf = 280 Lit 2 mol −2 s −1 .
2. What is solubility product?

Ans. The product of the concentrations of the caution and the anion present in a saturated solution
of a sparingly soluble salt at room temperature is called as Solubility product. It is denoted by Ksp.
The expression of Ksp for
a. AgCl ⇌Ag+ + Cl- ; Ksp = [Ag+][Cl-]
b. Mg (OH)2 ⇌Mg2++2OH-; Ksp = [Mg2+][OH–]2
3. What is common ion Effect?

Ans. The suppression of the dissociation of weak electrolyte by the addition of a strong electrolyte
having some common ion is called common ion effect.
Ex: The dissociation of week acid CH3COOH is decreased by the addition of HCl
(H+ ion is common) or by the addition of CH3COONa (CH3 COO– is the common ion).
4. What are Lewis acids and bases?

Ans. Lewis Acid: It is a substance that can accept an electron pair to form a coordinate covalent
bond with the donor.
E.g. BCl3, BeF2, AlCl3,
Lewis base is a substance that can donate an electron pair to form a dative bond with electron pair
acceptor acid.
Eg. NH3, H2O, F–, Cl–, I–,
5. Define PH. calculate the PH of 0.05 M Ba (OH)2.

+
Ans. The pH of a solution is defined as negative value of logarithm of H ion concentration to base
10 at a given temperature.
pH = –log10[H+] or pH = –log10[H3O+]
[OH–] = Normality of the strong base = acidity x M = 2 x 0.05 = 0.1=10-1

P OH = − log[O H − ] = − log 10 −1  = log10 = 1
P H = 14 − P OH = 14 − 1 = 13
6. The PH of HCl solution 5.4. What is the Hydrogen ion concentration?
Solution: pH = – log [H+], log [H+] = –pH
Log [H+] = -5.4= -6+0.6
[H+] = antilog of 0.6 x 10–6 = 3.98 x 10–6 M
7. What is a buffer solution? Give the equation for PH of acid buffer.

Ans. The Solution whose pH is almost constant when a small amount of acid or alkali is added is
called buffer solution. Buffer solutions have reserve acidity or alkalinity. The PH of an acid buffer is
[ salt ]
calculated by Henderson’s equation i.e. pH = pK a + log
[ acid ]
8. What is meant by Salt Hydrolysis?

Ans. The phenomenon in which the anion or caution or both ions of a salt react with water
producing excess of OH– ions or H+ ions or both in aqueous solutions is called as Salt hydrolysis .
Salt + water ⇌ acid + base
9. Give two examples of salts whose aqueous solutions are acidic?

Ans. Aqueous solution of a salt of strong acid and weak base is acidic due to cationic hydrolysis.
Eg. NH4Cl, CuSO4, (NH4)2SO4, MgSO4, CaCl2, etc.
10. Give two examples of salts whose aqueous solutions are basic?
Ans. Aqueous solution of a salt of weak acid and strong base is basic due to anionic hydrolysis.
Eg. CH3COONa, Na2CO3, KCN, Na3PO4, K2SO3, etc.
HYDROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS
1. Write any two methods for the preparation of H2O2?
Ans. I) Electrolytic Method: Hydrogen peroxide is manufactured on a large scale by the

electrolysis of 50% sulphuric acid using platinum anode and lead cathode followed by vacuum
distillation. A current of high density is used for electrolysis. At cathode hydrogen gas is liberated
and at anode peroxy disulphuric acid is formed.
2H2SO4 ⇌2H+ + 2HSO4-
At anode: 2HSO4- 
→ H S O + 2e–
2 2 8
At cathode: 2H+ + 2e– 
→H
2
i. On distillation Peroxydisulphuric acid undergoes hydrolysis to give hydrogen peroxide.
H2S2O8 + H2O 
→ H SO + H SO
2 5 2 4
H2SO5 + H2O 
→ H2O2 + H2SO4
ii. Industrially H2O2 is prepared by auto oxidation of 2-alkyl anthroquinone.

2
2-ethyl anthroquinol ←→ H 2O 2 + 2 − ethylanthroquinone

O (air)
H 2 /Pd
2. Write any two oxidising properties and two reducing properties of H2O2 with equations.
Ans.
Oxidising Properties:
i. It oxidises ferrous salts to ferric salts in acidic medium.
2Fe +2(aq) + 2H + (aq) + H 2 O 2(aq) 
→ 2Fe +3(aq) + 2H 2 O (l)
ii. It oxidises black lead sulphide to white lead sulphate.

PbS(s) + 4H2O2 (aq) 
→ PbSO4 (s) + 4H2O (l)
iii. . It oxidises ferrous salts to ferric salts in basic medium

2Fe +2(aq) + H 2 O 2(aq) 
→ 2Fe +3(aq) + 2OH − (aq)
Reducing Properties:
i. It reduces HOCl into Cl–.
→ H3O+ + Cl– + O2
HOCl + H2O2 
ii. It reduces acidified potassium permanganate tocolourless Mn+2.
2MnO4 - + 6H+ + 5H2O2 
+2
→ 2Mn + 8H2O + 5O2
iii. In alkaline solution it reduces potassium permanganate to manganese dioxide.

2MnO4 - + 3H2O2  -
→ 2MnO2 + 2OH + 2H2O + 3O2
3. What do you mean by hardness of water? Give the reactions in the Ion-exchange method.
Ans. A sample of water which does not give good lather with soap is known as hard water.
Hardness of water is of two types:
a) Temporary hardness (It is due to presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium)
b) Permanent hardness. (It is due to presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium)
permutit process : Permutit is artificial zeolite. Chemically it is hydrated sodium aluminium
orthosilicate (Na2Al2Si2O8.xH2O).Calcium and magnesium ions which cause hardness in water
are replaced by sodium ions which do not cause hardness. Thus water is softened. This method is
called “Ion- exchange process”.
→ MAl2Si2O8.xH2O + 2Na+ . Here M2+ is Ca2+ or Mg2+.
Na2Al2Si2O8.xH2O + M2+ 
After some use, all the sodium ions in the permutit are replaced by Ca2+ or Mg2+ ions and
then it is said that permutit is ‘exhausted’. The exhausted permutit can be regenerated by soaking it
with 10% brine (NaCl solution). Chemical reaction during the revival of exhausted permutit is given
as
MAl2Si2O8.xH2O + 2Na+ 
→ Na2Al2Si2O8.x H2O + M2 .
Here: M2+ is Ca2+ or Mg2+
4. Write a few lines on the utility of hydrogen as fuel? (March 2013)
Ans. i) Hydrogen is widely used as an industrial fuel as its heat of combustion is higher than other
fuels like LPG, methane,petrol etc.
ii. Pollutants in combustion of Hydrogen are only the oxides of Nitrogen which are easily removed
by injecting small amount o f water in to Hydrogen cylinder. Thus it is a better fuel than petrol.
iii. It is used in Fuel cells for generating electricity.
iv. The atomic hydrogen and Oxy Hydrogen torch are used for welding purposes and for melting
platinum metal and quartz.
v. Liquid hydrogen is used as rocket fuel.
5. Complete and balance the following chemical equations:

a) PbS+H2O2→
b) MnO4-+ H2O2→
c) CaO+H2O→
d) Ca3N2+H2O→
Ans: a) PbS(s) + 4H2O2 (aq) 
→ PbSO4 (s) + 4H2O (l)
b) 2MnO4 - + 6H+ + 5H2O2 

+2
→ 2Mn + 8H2O + 5O2
c) CaO+H2O→Ca (OH)2
d) Ca3N2 + 6H2O →3Ca (OH)2 + 2NH3
1. Write any two uses of D2O.

Ans. It is extensively used as moderator in nuclear reactors and in exchange reactions
for studying reaction mechanisms
2. What is deuterolysis? Give an equation for Deuterolysis?

Ans. The reaction of salts with heavy water is called deuterolysis.
AlCl3 + 3D2O 
→ Al (OD)3 + 3DCl
BiCl3 + D2O 
→ BiOCl + 2DCl
3. Draw the structure of H2O2.
gas PHASE SOLID PHASE
4. Write any two modern uses of H2O2
Ans. 1. It is used in the manufacture of chemicals like sodium perborate and per carbonate which
are useful in making high quality detergents.
2. It is used in manufacture of hydroquinone, tartaric acid and

Pharmaceuticals (Cephalosprin).
5. What is perhydrol? Give its volume strength?

Ans. A 30(w/v) % solution of hydrogen peroxide is called as perhydrol. Its volume strength
is‘ 100 volumes’
6. Give the melting point and boiling point of D2O?
Ans. Freezing point of D2O is 3.820C Or 276.82K and
Boiling point is 101.420C or 374.42K
7. What is meant by coal gasification? Give relavent equation?

Ans. The process of producing syngas from coal is called ‘coal gasification’.
673K
C + H2O →
Catalyst CO + H2
The production of hydrogen can be increased by reacting carbon monoxide of syngas mixture
with steam in the presence of iron chromate as catalyst.
Fe O / Cr
CO + H2O 
450 C → CO2 + H2
2 3
0
8. What do you mean by autoprotolysis? Give the equation to represent the auto protolysis of
water.
Ans. The self ionisation of water is called auto protolysis.

→ H 3O + ( aq ) + OH − ( aq )
H 2O( l ) + H 2O( l ) ←

9. Water behaves as amphoteric substance in the bronsted sense? Explain.

Ans. H2O has the ability to act as a Bronsted acid when dissolving alkalies and as a Bronsted base
When an acid is dissolved in it. This is due to the autoprotolysis ,

→ H 3O + ( aq ) + OH − ( aq )
H 2O( l ) + H 2O( l ) ←

10). Explain the term “SYNGAS”?

Ans. The mixture of CO and H2 is called water gas or synthesis i.e. syngas. It is used as a fuel gas.
S-Block Elements
(IA & IIA Groups)
Very Short Answer Questions:
1. Why are alkali metals not found in the free stale in nature? (Mar-2013)
Ans. Alkalimetals are highly reactive because of their high electropositivity and lower ionisation
enthalphies. Hence they occur in combined state but not in elementary i.e. free state in nature.
2. Write completely the electronic configurations of K and Rb?
Ans. Potassium (Z = 19)- 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
Rubidium (Z = 37) - 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p65s1

3. Write balanced equations for the reactions between
i) Na2O2 and water ii) K2O and water
Ans. (i) The balanced chemical equation for the reaction between Na2O2 and water is:
Na2O2 + 2H2O →2NaOH + H2O2
2Na2O2(s) + 2H2O(s) → 4NaOH(aq) + O2(aq)
(ii) The balanced chemical equation for the reaction between K2O and water is:
K2O+H2O → 2KOH
4. Which of the alkali metals shows abnormal density? What is the order of the variation of
density among the IA group elements?
Ans. Potassium (K) shows abnormal density due to abnormal increase in atomic size and the
presence of vacant 3d orbitals. The order of density Li<K<Na<Rb<Cs
5. Lithium reacts with water less vigorously than sodium. Give your reasons?
Ans. In lithium salts, due to very small size of lithium ion (Li+) it gets readily hydrated but the other
alkalimetal ions are comparatively big in size. Therefore, lesser tendency to get hydrated.
6. Write the complete electronic configurations of any two alkaline earth metals?
Ans. Magnesium (Z = 12) – 1s22s22p63s2; Calcium (Z = 20) - 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
7.Write the tahat take place at anode and cathode in the manufacture of NaOH by
castner - kellner process
Ans. In castner - kellner process NaOH is manufactured by the electrolysis of brine using a mercury
cathode and carbon anode. The reactions at electrodes are
At cathode: Na+ +e- +Hg → Na-amalgam
2 Na-amalgam+2H2O →2NaOH+ 2Hg+H2
At anode: 2Cl– →Cl2 + 2e–
8. What is the role of alkali metal ions in biology?
Ans. i. Sodium ions participate in the transmission of nerve signals, in regulating the flow of water
across cell membranes and in transport of sugar and amino acids into the cell.
ii. Potassium ions are the most abundant cations with in cell fluids, where they activate many
enzymes and participate in the oxidation of glucose to produce ATP. Potassium ions also
participate in the synthesis of proteins.
9. What is the importance of Mg+2 and Ca+2 in biology?
Ans. Role of Mg+2 in biology
1. Mg+2 ions are concentrated in animal cells.
2. Enzymes like ‘phosphohydrolases” and ‘phosphotransferases” contain Mg+2 ions. These

enzymes participate in ATP reactions and release energy in the process. Mg+2 forms a complex
with ATP.
3. Mg+2 is a constituent of chlorophyll, the green component of plants Role of Ca2+ in biology
1. Ca+2 ions are necessary for blood clotting.
2. Ca+2 ions are necessary to maintain regular heart beating
3. Ca2+ ions are necessary for muscle contraction
4. Ca2+ present in bones and teeth as apatite Ca3 (PO4)2. Enamel on teeth is fluropatite
3Ca3 (PO4)2.CaF2.
10. What are the characteristic colours imparted by the IIA elements?
Ans. In flame test Calcium gives brick red, Strontium gives crimson and barium imparts apple
green colours. Beryllium and magnesium do not impart any colour to the flame due to their
very high excitation energy.
11. What happens when magnesium metal is burnt in air?
Ans. Magnesium burns with dazzling brilliant white light in air to give MgO and Mg3 N2.
2Mg + O2 →2 MgO 3Mg + N2 → Mg3N2
12. Write a balanced equation for the formation of ammoniated IIA metal ions from the
metals in liquid ammonia?
Ans. Alkaline earth metals [M] dissolve in liquid ammonia to give deep blue black solutions due to
formation of ammoniated electrons.
M + (x + y) NH3 → [M(NH3)X]2+ + 2[e(NH3)Y]–
13. Write the average composition of portland cement?

Ans. The average composition of portland cement is CaO 50-60%; SiO2, 20 - 25%; A12O3,
5-10%; MgO, 2-3%; Fe2O3, 1-2% and SO2 1–2%
14. Why is gypsum added to cement?

Ans. The purpose of adding gypsum is it decreases the rate of setting of cement. It increases the
time required for setting of cement.
15. Describe the important uses of caustic soda?
Ans. It is used in
i) The manufacture of soaps, paper, artificial silk and a number of chemicals
ii) In petroleum refining
iii) In the Purification of bauxite
iv) In the textile industries for mercirising cotton fabrics
16. Describe the important uses of sodium carbonate?
Ans. i) In water softening, cleaning and launderies.
ii) In the manufacture of glass, soap, borax, NaOH, paper, paints and textile industry.
iii) It is an important laboratory reagent both in qualitative and quantitative analysis.
17. Describe the important Uses of quick lime?

Ans. i) It is an important primary material for manufacturing cement
ii) It is used in the manufacture of sodium carbonate from caustic soda.
iii) It is used in the purification of sugar and dye stuffs
18. Draw the structures of i) BeCI2 (vapour) and ii) BeCl2 (solid)
Ans. (a) Structure of BeCl2, (solid)
BeCl2 exists as a polymer in condensed (solid) phase.
In the vapour state, BeCl2 exists as a monomer with a linear structure. Cl - Be – Cl
19. Describe the importance of plaster of paris?

Ans. 1) The largest use of plaster of paris is in the building industry as well as plasters.
2) It is used for immoblising the affected part of organ where there is a bone fracture or sprain
3) It is also employed in dentistry, in ornamental work and for making casts of statues and
busts.
20. Lithium salts are mostly hydrated. Why?
Ans. Lithium salts are mostly hydrated because Li+ ion has high polarizing power due to its smaller
size. As the size of the ions increases, their polarizing power decreases. Hence, other alkali
metal ions usually form anhydrous salts.
E.g. LiCl.2H2O
P-Block Elements
(IIIA Group Elements)
1. Explain the structure of Diborane?
Ans. Diborane is an electron deficient compound. In diborane, total number of valence electrons is
12. diborane contains two coplanar BH2 groups. Diborane has four terminal hydrogen atoms and
the two boron atoms lie in one plane. Above and below this plane, there are two bridge hydrogen
atoms. The bridge hydrogen atoms are present in a plane perpendicular to rest of the molecule. Each
bridge hydrogen is bonded to the two boron atoms only by sharing of two electrons. These are
called three centred two electron bonds, also known as banana or tau bonds.
In diborane, each boron atom in excited state undergoes sp3 hybridisation. Two of the half
filled sp3 hybrid orbitals form sigma bonds with half filled 1s -orbitals of terminal hydrogen atoms.
The third hybrid orbital containing unpaired electron overlaps simulta-neously with half filled
1s-orbital of bridge hydrogen atom and vacant hybrid orbital of the adjacent boron atom to
constitute three centre two electron pair bond. Two such bonds are present in a diborane molecule
two
B – H – B bond (sp3 – s – sp3).
Ht Hb o Ht
1.33 A
121.5o (B) 97o (B)

o
1.19 A
Ht
Hb Ht
The distance between the two non-bonded boron atoms is 177 pm.
2. Explain borax bead test with a suitable example?
Ans. On heating borax first gives sodium tetra borate and finally gives a mixture of sodium
metaborate and B2O3 called borax glass. The boric anhydride B2O3 combines with metal oxides
to form metal metaborates as coloured beads. This is known as borax bead test and is useful in the
identification of basic radicals in qualitative analysis. The reactions are as follows:
Na 2 B4O7 .10 H 2O → Na2 B4O7  → 2 NaBO2 + B2O3

fused
sodium metaborate
( Borax glass )
B2O3 + CoO → Co ( BO2 ) 2 ( Cobalt metaborate )

Blue bead
B2O3 + CuO → Cu ( BO2 )2 ( Copper metaborate )

green bead
3. Discuss the structure of Boric acid. Give its uses?
Ans. In boric acid, B(OH)3 units are joined by hydrogen bonds to give two dimensional sheets. The
sheets are held together by weak vanderwaals forces which are responsible for the cleavage of
solid structure in to flakes.
H B
O O
H H
O O
B H
H H
O
O O
H B
H B H O
O
O O
H
H
The dotted lines represent hydrogen bonds.
Uses: boric acid is used
1. As an antiseptic
2. As a food preservative
3. In making enamel and glass.
4. Explain any two methods of preparation of diborane?
Ans. Preparation of diborane

1. Industrially diborane is prepared by the reaction of boron trifluoride with sodium hydride
2BF3 + 6LiH 
450K
→ B2H6 + 6LiF
2. In laboratory, diborane is prepared by treating boron trifluoride with lithium aluminium hydride
in anhydrous diethyl ether (OR) by the oxidation of Sodium borohydride with Iodine.
4BF3 + 3LiAlH4 
→ 2B2H6 + 3LiF+ 3AlF3
2NaBH 4 + I2 
→ B2 H 6 + 2NaI + H 2
5. Write the reactions of B2H6 with

a) H2O b) CO c) N(CH3)3
Ans. a. B2H6 readily reacts with water giving boric acid and hydrogen.
B2H6 + 6H2O 
→ 2H3BO3 + 6H2
b. It combines with carbon monoxide (Lewis base) to form borane carbonyl.

B2H6 +2CO 
→ 2 BH3.CO
c. It undergoes cleavage reactions with lewis base to form adduct

B2 H 6 + 2N(CH3 )3 
→ 2BH3 .N(CH3 )3
6. Na2 B4O7 + Conc.H 2 SO4 

→ A 
1.C 2 H 5 OH
ii .ignite
→ B (Greenedgeflame) .Identify A and B?
Ans. Na2 B4O7 + H 2 SO4 + 5 H 2O 

→ Na2 SO4 + 4 H 3 BO3 (A)
∆
H 3 BO3 + 3C2 H 5OH  →(C2 H 5 )3 BO3 + 3 H 2O
Here compound A is H3BO3 and B is (C2 H 5 )3 BO3

7. What happens when?
a. Borax is heated strongly
b. Boric acid is added to water
c. Aluminium is heated with dil-NaOH
d. BF3 is treated ammonia.
Ans. a. On heating borax first gives sodium tetra borate and finally gives a mixture of sodium
metaborate and B2O3 called borax glass.
Na 2 B4O7 .10 H 2O → Na2 B4O7  → 2 NaBO2 + B2O3

fused
sodium metaborate
( Borax glass )
b. Boric acid is not a protonic acid but acts as a Lewis acid by accepting electrons from a hydroxyl
ion.
→ [B(OH)4]– + H+ (or)
B(OH)3 + HOH 
→ [B(OH)4]– + H3O+
B(OH)3 + 2HOH 
c. All reacts with dilute NaOH to form meta aluminate and liberates H gas.
2
−
→ 2  Al ( OH ) 4 ( H 2O ) 2  + 3H 2 ↑
2Al + 2OH– + 10H2O 
Meta alu min ateion
d. BF3 forms an adduct with Ammonia due to dative bond formation.
H 3 N : + BF3 
→[ H 3 N :→ BF3 ] 
→ H 3 N : BF3
8. Write reactions to justisfy the amphoteric nature of aluminium.
Ans. Aluminium readily dissolves in dilute or concentrated hydrochloric acid liberating hydrogen.
2Al + 6HCl 
→ 2AlCl3 + 3H2
Al reacts with dilute NaOH to form meta aluminate and liberates H2 gas.
−
→ 2  Al ( OH )4 ( H 2O )2  + 3H 2 ↑
2Al + 2OH– + 10H2O 
Meta alu min ate ion
As it reacts with both acid as well as base, it is said to be amphoteric in nature.

1. What is the hybridisation of Boron in diborane and borazole?
Ans. Hybridisation of Boron in diborane is SP3 and in borazole is SP2.
2. What is inert pair effect?

Ans. The reluctance shown by pair of outer s–electrons in heavier p-block elements to participate
in bond formationis called as inertpair effect.
Tl+1 are more stable than Tl+3 due to inert pair effect.
3. Give the formula of borazine. What is its common name?
Ans. The formula of borazine i.e borazole is B3N3H6. It is commonly known as inorganic benzene
as it is isostructral with benzene.
4. Give the formula of a) Borax b) colemanite.
Ans. The formula of borax is Na 2 B4O7 .10 H 2O and colemanite is Ca2B6O11.5H2O
5. It the structure of AlCl3 as a dimer.
22
2 06 Cl 1p
Cl pm m Cl
0
Al 10
1 Al 0
118
790
Cl Cl
Ans.
Cl
P-Block Elements
(IVA Group Elements)

1. What is allotropy? Give the crystalline allotropes of carbon?
Ans. The property due to which an element exists in two or more forms that differ in their physical
and some of the chemical properties is known as allotropy. The crystalline allotropes of carbon are
diamond, graphite and Buckminsterfullerene.
2. Diamond has high melting point. Why?
Ans. Diamond has a three-dimensional net work involving strong C–C bonds, which are very
difficult to break and, in turn has high melting point.
3. Diamond is insulator, but graphite is a good conductor. Why?
Ans. Diamond has no free electrons. Hence it does not exhibits electrical conductivity graphite has
free delocalised p-electrons. Hence it is a conductor.
4. How does graphite functions as a lubricant?

Ans. Graphite is used as a solid lubricant, because it is soft. Due to weak vander Waals forces
between the layers of graphite, the layers have sliding nature.
6. What are silicones? Give their uses?
Ans. Silicones are synthetic organ silicon compounds containing Si - O - Si linkages with R2SiO
as repeating units. So their general formula is (R2SiO) n, where R is alkyl or aryl group.
Uses: 1. In the preparation of water proof clothes and papers as alkyl groups are water repelling in
nature,
2. used in paints and enamels as they can withstand high temperature and chemical inertness
3. Used in surgical and cosmetic plants as they are bio-compatible.
7. Write the use of ZSM-5?
Ans. ZSM–5 is one type of zeolite used to convert alcohols directly into gasoline.
8. What is synthesis gas? How is it prepared?
Ans. A mixture of carbon monoxide (40-50%) and hydrogen (45-50%) is called synthesis gas or
Water gas. It is prepared by passing super heated steam over red hot coke or coal.
C + H2O 
→ CO+H2 ; H = +121.22 kJmol–1
9. What is producer gas? How is it prepared?
Ans. Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide (33%) and nitrogen (64%) It is prepared by
passing air over White coke in a furnace called gas producer.
C + O2 
→ CO2 ; H = –394 kJ mol–1
CO2 + C 
→ 2CO; H = + 163 kJ mol–1
2C + O2 
→ 2CO ;∆ H = –231 kJ mol–1
10. Producer gas is less efficient than water gas-explain?
Ans. Producer gas is less efficient than water gas as it contains non combustible N2 gas in larger
proportion.
11. Explain the structure of silica?
Ans. Silica is giant molecule with three dimensional structures. Each silicon is tetrahedrally linked
to four oxygen atoms by covalent bonds using SP3 hybrid orbitals.
Si O Si O Si
O O O
Si O Si O Si
O O O
Si O Si O Si
Fig.4. Structure of silica
12. CCl4 does not act as Lewis acid while SiCl4 and SnCl4 act as Lewis acids. Why?
Ans. SiCl4 and SnCl4 act as Lewis acids. This is because they can extend their coordination number
beyond four due to the presence of vacant d-orbitals in the valance shell.
13. Si [F6]2– is known whereas [SiCl6]2– not. Give possible reasons?
Ans. Six large chloride ions cannot be accommodated around Si4+ due to limitation of its size.
Interaction between lone pair of chloride ion and Si4+ is not very strong.
14. What are silicates? Name any two man-made silicates?
Ans. Silicates are metal derivatives of silicic acid .The silicates are mainly divided into six types
depending on the manner in which different SiO44– units are linked together. Two important
man made silicates are glass and cement.
15. Classify the following into neutral, acidic, basic or amphoteric?
a. CO b. B2O3 c. SiO2 d. CO2 e. Al2O3 f. PbO2 g. Tl2O3
Ans. i. CO is a neutral oxide
ii. B2O3, SiO2 and CO2 are acidic oxides
iii. Al2O3 and PbO2 are amphoteric
iv. Tl2O3 is a basic oxide.
16. Give the Hybridiasation of carbon in
a. CO3-2 b. Diamond c. Graphite d. Fullerene
Ans. The Hybridiasation of carbon in
CO3-2, Fullerene and graphite is same i.e. Sp2 where as in diamond is Sp3
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
1. Explain the following with suitable examples?
a) Wurtz Reaction.
b) Kolbe’s Electrolysis.
c) Friedal Craft’s Alkylation
Ans. a) Wurtz Reaction: Alkyl halides on treatment with sodium metal in dry ethereal solution
give higher alkanes. This reaction is known as Wurtz reaction and is a convenient method for the
preparation of higher alkanes having even number of carbon atoms. Usually bromides and iodides
are preferred.
Dry
R–X + 2Na + X–R 
ether→ R–R + 2NaX
E.g. Methyl bromide on treating with sodium metal in dry ether gives ethane.
CH 3 Br + 2 Na + CH 3 Br 
Dryether
→ CH 3 − CH 3 + 2 NaBr
b) Kolbe’s Electrolysis:
When a saturated aqueous solution of sodium or potasium salt of a carboxylic acid is

electrolysed, alkane containing even number of carbon atoms along with carbondioxide at anode
and sodium or potassium hydroxide along with hydrogen are formed at cathode.
2RCOONa + 2H2O 
→ R–R + 2CO2 + 2NaOH + H2
E.g. When a concentrated aqueous solution of sodium acetate is electrolysed, ethane is liberated
at anode.
2CH3COONa + 2H2O 
→ CH3–CH3 + 2CO2 + 2NaOH + H2
c) Friedal Craft’s Alkylation: Benzene reacts with an alkyl halide in presence of anhydrous
aluminium chloride to give alkyl benzene.
R
→
AlCl3
+ RX + HX
E.g. Benzene reacts with methyl chloride in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride to give
methyl benzene i.e. Toluene.
CH3
 →
AlCl
+ CH3Cl 3
+ HCl
2. Explain position isomerism and Functional group isomerism with examples?
Ans. Position Isomerism:

Isomers which differ in the position of a functional group or multiple bond or substituent in the
same carbon chain are called position isomers.
Eg1: C3H7OH has two position isomers.
CH 3 − CH 2 − CH 2 CH 3 − CH − CH 3
| |
OH OH
n-Propyl alcohol Isopropyl alcohol

(1-propanol) (2-propanol)
Eg2: Butene has two position isomers.

CH3CH2CH=CH2 CH3CH=CHCH3
1-Butene 2-Butene
Functional Group Isomerism:

Compounds having same molecular formula but different functional groups are called functional
group isomers.
Eg1. CH3CH2OH and CH3–O–CH3
Ethyl alcohol Dimethylether
Eg.2 CH3CH2CHO and CH3COCH3

Propionaldehyde Acetone
Eg.3 CH3CH2COOH and CH3COOCH3

Propionic acid Methyl acetate
3. Give two methods of preparation of Acetylene. How does it react with water and Ozone?
Ans. From Calcium Carbide: On industrial scale, Ethyne is prepared by treating Calcium
Carbide with water
CaC2 + 2 H 2 O → Ca ( OH ) 2 + C2 H 2
From vicinal diHalides: Vicinal dihalides on treatment with alcoholic potassium hydroxide
undergo dyHydroHalogenation. One molecule of Hydrogen Halide is eliminated to form
Alkenyl halide which on treatment with Sodamide gives Alkyne.
H H H
+ −
CH 2 − C − H + KOH 
alcohol
− KBr
→ C =C 
Na NH 2
− NaBr
→ HC ≡ CH
Br Br − H 2O H Br − NH 3
i. Reaction with water: One molecular of water adds to Ethyne on warming with mercuric
sulphate and dilute Sulphuric acid at 333K to form Ethanal.
2+ +
HC ≡ CH + H − OH 
Hg / H
333 K
→ H 2C = C − H 
Isomerisation
→ H 3C − C − H
OH O
Ethyne Ethanal
ii. With ozone: Ethyne undergoes reductive Ozonolysis to form glyoxal
O
Zn + H 2 O
CHO
HC ≡ CH + O3 → HC CH  → + H 2O2
O O CHO
glyoxal
acetylene
ozonide
4. How does Acetylene react with the following reagents? Give the corresponding equation
and name the products formed in the reactions.
a ) Acetic acid b) Water c) Hydrogen
d) Halogens e) Hydrogen Halide f) Ammonical AgNO3 and Cu2Cl2
A) Acetylene being unsaturated molecule readily undergoes addition reactions with the
π -bonds.
i) Reaction with Acetic Acid: - Acetylene on treatment with acetic acid gives vinylacetate in
the 1st step and then gives Ethylidene diacetate Hg +2 acts as a catalyst.
O
+2
H − C ≡ C − H + CH 3COOH 
Hg
→ H 2C = CH − O − C − CH 3
(Used in plastic industry)
Acetylene Vinyl acetate
O
Hg +2  O 
H 2C = CH − O − C − CH 3 = CH 3COOH  → H 3C − CH  
 O − C − CH 3 
Vinyl acetate Ethylidene diacetate

ii) Reaction with water:- Acetylene undergoes addition reaction with water molecule
warming with Mercuric sulphate and dilute Sulphuric acid at 333K to form Acetaldehyde
(Ethanal)
O−H O
+2 ⊕
HC ≡ CH + H − OH 
Hg / H
333 K
→ H 2C = C − H ←
Isomerisation
→ H 3C − C − H
iii) With Hydrogen: Hydrogen molecule reacts with Acetylene in the presence of Pt/Pd/Ni
to form ethane.
HC ≡ CH + H 2 
Pt / Pd / Ni
→ H 2C = CH 2 
H2
→ H 3C − CH 3
Ethyne Ethene Ethane
iv). With Halogens: on reaction with Bromine (Halogen) Acetylene forms a Tetrabromo
product
Br Br Br Br
HC ≡ CH + Br2 
→ CH − CH 
CCl4
→H −C −C − HCCl4
Br2
Br Br
1,2-didromo ethane 1,1,2,2 –Tetra bromo ethane

In this reaction reddish Orange colour of Bromide gets decolourised. This reaction is used as
a test for unsaturation.
5. What is substitution reaction? Explain any two substitution reaction of benzene?

Ans. The reaction in which an atom or a group attached to a carbon atom in a substrate molecule is
replaced by another atom or group is known as a Substitution reaction.
Nitration: Benzene when heated with a mixture of (1: 1 by volume) concentrated nitric acid and
concentrated sulphuric acid (nitration mixture) below 600 C gives nitrobenzene.

NO2
H 2 SO4 + H2O
+ HNO3 →
0
<60 C
Halogenation: Benzene reacts with chlorine or bromine in presence of Lewis acids such as
FeCl3 or FeBr3 or AlCl3 as catalyst to give halobenzene.
Cl
+ Cl2 →
FeCl3
+ HCl
6. What do you understand about Geometrical isomerism? Explain the Geometrical isomers
of 2-butene.
Ans. Geometrical isomerism: - Compound which possess the same molecular formula and same
structural formula but differ in the spatial arrangement of the groups around the double bond are
called Geometrical isomers and the phenomenon is known a Geometrical isomerism. This
isomerism is also called cis-Trans isomerism
(a) Cis-Trans: Geometrical isomerism requires the two groups attached to the same carbon to be
different
Alkenes of the type abC = Cab, abC = Ccd , abC = Cax and abC = Cbx show Geometrical isomerism.
When the same groups lie on the same side of double bond then isomer is cis-isomer. If the similar
groups are present on opposite side of double bond then it is Trans-isomer.
E.g.: - 2 butane
CH 3 CH 3 CH 3 H
C =C C =C
H H H CH 3
Cis-2-Butane Trans -2-Butane
(Same groups are on same side) (Same group are on opposite side)
7. Explain the method of writing E-Z configuration for geometrical isomers taking
CHCl = CFBr as your example.
Ans. E-Z configurations:
i) E-Z notational system is used when it is not clear, which substituent on one carbon is
similar to a reference substitute on the other. This is based on atomic number ranking
method.
ii)According to this when atoms of higher atomic number are on the same side of double
bond it is said to have ‘Z’ configuration. ‘Z’ stands for the German word ‘Zusammen’ which
means together.
iii) When atoms of higher atomic number are on opposite sides of the double bond it is said
to have ‘E’ configuration. ‘E’ stands for the German word ‘Entgegen’ which means opposite.
E.g.: CHCl = CFBr
higher higher higher

atomic no higher
atomic no atomic no atomic no
Cl Br
Cl F
C =C
C =C
H F
lower lower H Br
lower lower
atomic no atomic no atomic no atomic no
Z-configuration E-configuration
(Two higher priority groups 17 Cl and 35 Br (Two higher priority groups 17 Cl and are
same side) 35 Br on opposite side)
8. Write any two methods of preparation of Benzene? How does Benzene react with the
following reagents?
a) CH3Cl / anhydrousAlCl3 b) O3/Zn+H2O
Ans. Polymerisation of acetylene: On passing acetylene gas through red hot iron or copper tube
benzene is formed.
3C2 H 2 →
redhottube
C6 H 6
Decarboxylation of Benzoic Acid: On heating sodium benzoate with soda lime gives benzene.
It is a laboratory method of preparation.
C6 H 5COONa + NaOH 
CaO
→ C6 H 6 + Na2CO3
C H 3
+ C H 3 C l  a   →
n h y d . A lC l3
+ H C l
m e th y l c h lo r id e
B e n z e n e
T o u le n e
a. (M e th y l b e n z e n e )
b. Ozonolysis: One mole of benzene reacts with three moles of ozone to give a triozonide, which on
hydrolysis in presence of zinc gives three moles of glyoxal.
CHO
 →3 |
H2 O, Zn
C6H6 + 3O3 
→ C6 H 6 O 9 CHO + 3H2O2
9. Describe any two methods of preparation of Ethylene. Give equations for the reaction of
ethylene with the following
a) Ozone b) Hypohalous acid
c) Cold and alkaline KMnO4 d) Heated with O2 at high pressures
Ans. Ethylene is prepared by the dehydration of ethylalcohol using Conc.H2SO4 at 170o C or Al2O3
at 350o C.
CH3CH2OH 
→ CH2 = CH2 + H2O
Ethylene is prepared by the dehydrohalogenation of ethylchloride using alcoholic NaOH

or KOH.
CH3CH2Cl + KOH (alcoholic) 

→ CH2 = CH2 + KCl + H2O
O
CH2 CH2
a. CH2=CH2 + O3 
→O O 
Zn
H 2O
→ 2HCHO(Formaldehyde)
b. With Hypochlorous acid
CH2 = CH2 + Cl–OH 

→ CH2Cl–CH2OH (2-chloro ethanol)
c. Baeyer’s reagent oxidises ethylene to ethylene glycol.
CH2 = CH2 + H2O + (O) 

→ HO–CH2–CH2–OH
Ethane–1,2-diol
d. Ethylene is oxidised to ethylene oxide with air or oxygen in presence of silver catalyst.
CH 2 = CH 2 + 12 O2 
Ag
→ CH 2 − CH 2
10. What is ozonolysis? Which type of compounds reacts with ozone? Explain with
anexample?
Ans. Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition with ozone to form unstable ozonides which
when hydrolysed in presence of zinc, carbonyl compounds are formed. The overall reaction is
called ozonolysis or reductive ozonolysis. Unsaturated hydrocarbons having C=C or C≡C only
undergo ozonolysis.Ozonolysis reaction is highly useful in detecting (or locating) the position
of the double bond in alkenes or triple bond in alkynes.
E.g.
O
Zn + H 2 O
CHO
HC ≡ CH + O3 → HC CH  → + H 2O2
O O CHO
glyoxal
acetylene
ozonide
11. Discuss Markownikoff’s Rule and kharash effect?
Ans. Markovnikov rule: This rule is useful when a polar reagent adds on to an unsymmetrical
alkene. It states that “The negative part of the addendum adds on to the carbon atom having less
number of hydrogen atoms”.
Mechanism of the addition of hydrogen bromide to an unsymmetrical alkene is given as follows:

HBr ionises as H+ and Br–. Electrophile, H+ attacks the double bond to form carbocation.
H3C-CH=CH2 + H–Br
H+
(a) (b)
+ +
H3C–CH2–CH2 + Br H3C–CH–CH3 + Br
Less stable primary More stable secondary
carbocation carbocation
Due to more hyperconjugation in secondary carbocation (b), it is more stable than primary
carbocation (a) and forms predominently at a faster rate. Then the secondary carbocation
(b) isattacked by Br– readily to form the major product

2-bromopropane.
+ H 3C − CH − CH 3
H 3C −C H − CH 3 
→ |
Br
Peroxide Effect: In the presence of peroxide, addition of HBr to unsymmetrical alkenes takes place
contrary to Markovnikov’s rule. This happens only with HBr but not with HCl and HI. This
reaction is also known as Kharasch effect or Anti Markovnikov’s rule.
Peroxide
CH3-CH=CH2+HBr  → CH3-CH2-CH2Br
Propene 1-Bromopropane
(major product)
It follows free radical mechanism
1. Write the reagents required for the conversion of Benzene to Methyl Benzene?
Ans. Benzene on reaction with methyl chloride in the presence of Anhydrous AlCl3 gives Methyl
Benzene. It is an Electrophic Substitution reaction.
CH 3
+ C H 3 C l  a  →
n h y d . A l C l3
+ HCl
m e th y l c h lo r id e
B enzene
T o u le n e
(M e th y l b e n z e n e )
2. How is Nitro Benzene Prepared?

Ans. When Benzene is heated with a mixture concentrated Nitric acid and concentrated Sulphuric
acid (Nitration mixture) gives Nitro Benzene.
NO2
23 K − 333 K
+ C o n c . H N O 3 + C o n c . H 2 S O 4  3  → + H 2O
N itra tio n m ix tu re
Benzene N itro b e n z e n e
3. Write the corresponding equations for the following reactions and name the products A, B,
and C?
AlCl3 +CH 3Cl
CaC2 
H 2O
→( A) →
redhottube
( B)  →(C )
− Ca (OH )2 AlCl3 +CH 3Cl
Ans. CaC2 + 2 H 2O  → C2 H 2 ( A) →
redhottube
C6 H 6 ( B)  → C6 H 5CH 3 (C )
A is Acetylene, B is Benzene and C is Toluene.

4. Write the corresponding equations for the following reactions and name the products
A, B, and C. Ethylene 
Br2
CCl
→( A) 
alc. KOH
→( B ) →
Br2
(C )
4
−2 KBr ,−2 H 2O
Ans. C2 H 4 + Br2 
CCl
→ BrH 2C − CH 2 Br + 2 KOH  → HC ≡ CH 
2 Br2
→ Br2 H C − CHBr2 A
4
is 1,2-dibromo ethane , B is acetylene and C is1,1,2,2-tetrabromo ethane.
5. How do you prepare ethychloride from ethylene?

Ans. Ethychloride is prepared by the electrophilic addition of HCl to ethylene in presence of AlCl3.
H 2C = C H 2 + HCl 
AlCl3
→ H 3C −C H 2Cl
6. Write structures of Trichloro ethanoic acid, Neopentane , P-nitro benzaldehyde?
Ans. Trichloro ethanoic acid Neopentane P-nitro benzaldehyde.
Cl
| CH 3
|
Cl − C − COOH CH 3 − C − CH 3
|
| CH 3
Cl
7. Write the IUPAC names of the following hydrocarbons:
(a) CHC–CH2–CH=CH–CH3
CH 2 = C − CH 2 − CH 3
|
(b) CH − CH 3
|
CH 3
Ans. (a) Hex-4-en-1-yne

(b) 2-Ethyl-3-methyl-1-butene
8. Give the IUPAC names of the compounds:
i) CH 3 − C ≡ C − CH 3
ii) CH 3 − CH 2 − CH = CH 2
CH 3 − CH − CH − CH 2OH
iii) | |
Cl CH 3
Ans. i. 2-butyne
ii. 1-butene
iii. 3-chloro, 2-methyl1-butanol
9. Write the structural formula of the following:
(a) 3–Ethyl–4–methylpenta–1,3–diene
(b) 2-Methyl-3-hexyne
2
3 1
4 CH 3CH 2C ≡ CCHCH 3
Ans. a. 5 b . |
CH 3
10. What is the stability order of various alkyl free radicals? Why?
Ans. The stability order of alkyl free radicals is:

• •
• •
(CH3)3 C > (CH3)2 C H > CH3 C H2 > C H3
30 20 10
More the number of hyperconjugative structures, the greater is the stability. Tertiary butyl free
radical has 9; isopropyl free radical has 6; ethyl free radical has 3 and methyl free radical has no
hyperconjugative structures.
11. Write the conformations of Ethane?

H
H H H
H
H H
H H H
H H H
H HH H
H
Ans. Staggered Eclipsed Skew
12. What is chain isomerism? Give Example?

Ans.
The isomerism arises due to difference in the arrangement of carbon atoms constituting the chain
known as Chain isomerism
E.g. 1) Butane has two chain isomers.

CH 3
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 and |
CH 3 − CH − CH 3
n-Butane Isobutane
13. What is metamerism? Give Example?

Ans.
The isomerism arises due to the presence of different alky l groups attached to the same
bivalent functional group is called. Metamerism Ethers, secondary amines, ketones, etc., can exhibit
metamerism.
1) C2H5OC2H5 and C3H7OCH3
Diethylether Methyl propyl ether
2) C3H7NHC3H7 and C2H5NHC4H9
Dipropyl amine Ethyl butyl amine
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

1. What is chemical oxygen demand (COD)?
Ans. The amount of oxygen required to oxidise organic substances present in polluted water is
called as chemical oxygen demand. It is an important parameter for determining the quality of
water.
2. What is Bio chemical oxygen demand (BOD)? Give the possible BOD values of clean
water and the polluted water?
Ans. The amount of oxygen used by the suitable micro-organisms present in water during five days
At 20° C is called biochemical oxygen demand. For pure water, BOD is about 1 ppm and for
polluted water is about 100 - 4000 ppm
3. Which oxides cause acid rain? And what is its pH value? (Mar - 2013)
Ans. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide after oxidation and reaction with water forms acid rain.
The pH of rain water is 5.6

2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O → 2H2SO4
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4HNO3
4. Name two adverse effects caused by acid rains? (MAR-13)

Ans. The adverse effects caused by acid rain are
(i) Acid rain washes away nutrients needed for their growth.
(ii) Acid rain causes respiratory ailments in human beings and animals.
(iii) It corrodes water pipes resulting in leaching of heavy metals like iron.
5). what are pollutant, contaminant, and speciation?

A) Pollutant: The substance which is present in nature and causes the pollution is called as
pollutant.
Contaminant: The substance which does not occur in nature but releases into the environment
due to human activity and causes the pollution is known as contaminant.
Ex: in the Bhopal gas tragedy, contaminent is MIC i.e. methyl isocyanate
Speciation: The detection of different chemical forms of inorganic, organic compounds
present in the Environment causing pollution is known as speciation.
6. Green house effect caused by__& ___?

Ans. Green house effect is caused by CO, ozone and chlorofluoro carbon gases
7. Name the common components of photochemical smog?

Ans. The common components of photochemical smog are ozone, nitric oxide, acrolein,
formaldehyde and peroxyacetyl nitrate. (PAN).
It causes serious health problems. Both ozone and PAN act as powerful eye irritants.
8. How is ozone formed in the stratosphere?
A) Oxygen from troposphere reaches to stratosphere and converts into ozone by absorbing uv
light.
O2(g) 
→ O(g) + O(g)

U .V .
O(g) + O2(g) ←  → O
M 3(g) (M = N2 + O2)
9. In which segment of atmosphere ozone as present, what is the advantage of ozone layer?
Ans. Ozone is present in stratosphere. It protects us from UV. Radiations which causes skin
damages.
10. Define receptor and sink? (MAR-2013)
Ans. Receptors: The medium which is affected by a pollutant is called Receptor.
E.g.: eye irritation caused by smoke.
Sink: The medium which retains and interacts with a pollutant
E.g.: Oceans and green plants are sinks for CO2
11. Define the term TLV?

Ans. TLV (Threshold Limit Value): The permissible level of the toxic substances (or) pollutants
in the atmosphere, which affects a person adversely when he is exposed to this for 7 - 8 hrs. in
a day is called TLV.
E.g.: TLV of carbon monoxide is 9 ppm.
12. Write any two effects of polluted water?

Ans. It damages the agriculture sector, aquatic life and also causes diseases for human beings
13. What happends when CO concentration is increased in atmosphere?
Ans. CO binds to haemoglobin to form Carboxyhemoglobin which is 300 times more stable than
the oxyhaemoglobin. Increase the concentration of Carboxyhemoglobin causes headache,
weak eye sight etc.
14. What is green house effect?
Ans. Some of the heat from the sun rays is trapped by CO2, CH4, O3, CC12 F2 gases and water
vapour adds heat to the atmosphere this is called Green house effect.
15. What is harm caused by CFC’S?
Ans. It damages the ozone layer, causes global warming.
16. Give the chemical equations involved in the ozone depletion by CF2Cl2?
Ans. Chlorofluorocarbons released in to atmosphere mix with atmospheric gases and reach the
stratosphere. There, they get broken down by powerful UV radiations, releasing chlorine free
radical.
CF2Cl2 
uv
→ Cl • + C • F2Cl
The chlorine radical reacts with O3 to form chlorine monoxide radicals and oxygen.
Cl • + O3 
→ ClO • + O2
Chlorine monoxide radical reacts with atomic oxygen produces more chlorine radicals.
ClO • + O 
→ Cl • + O2
The chlorine radicals are continuously regenerated and cause ozone depletion.
17. What is ozone hole? Where it was first observed?

Ans. Depletion of ozone layer commonly known as ozone hole. Chlorofluorocarbons released in to
atmosphere mix with atmospheric gases and reach the stratosphere. There, they release
chlorine free radical which causes ozone depletion.
In summer season NO2 and CH4 react with chlorine monoxide and chlorine atoms forming
chlorine sinks prevent ozone depletion. Ozone hole was first observed over the South Pole.
18. Define the terms Atmosphere, Biosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere?

Ans. Atmosphere: - Atmosphere is the protective blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
Biosphere: - All living species including human beings and animals constitute Biosphere.
Lithosphere: - Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth consisting of minerals and the
soil.
Hydrosphere: - All the natural water resources together constitute the hydrosphere. These
include oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, streams, reservoirs, glaciers, etc.
19. List out four gaseous pollutants present in Troposphere?

Ans. The major gaseous pollutants in Troposphere are oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon,
hydrogen sulphide, hydrocarbons, ozone and other oxidants.
20. Name three industrial chemicals that pollute water?

Ans. Various industrial chemicals that pollute water are polychlorinated biphenyls. Detergents and
fertilizers.
22. What agrochemicals are responsible for water pollution?

Ans. Sodium chlorate, Sodium arsinate, Aldrin Dialdrin, etc. are responsible for water pollution.
23. What is PAN? What effect is caused by it?

Ans. PAN is peroxyacetyl nitrate. Ozone reacts with unburnt hydrocarbons in the polluted air in the
presence of strong oxidising agents like NO2 to produce chemicals such as formaldehyde,
acrolein and PAN. PAN is a powerful eye irritant.
3CH4 + 2O3 
→ 3HCHO + 3H2O
CH 2 = CHCHO → CH 3COONO2
( Acrolein) O ( PAN )

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Long Answer Questions:

1. What are quantum numbers? Give their significance?

1) Principal quantum number (n)

1. Principal Quantum Number (n):

4. Spin Quantum Number(S):

Bohr’s Explanation of Hydrogen Spectrum:

Lyman series(U.V. region)

Merts of Bohr’s Model:

3. State and explain the following with suitable examples.

Short Answer Questions

1. Explain the difference between emission and absorption spectra?

2. Explain photo electric effect?

called as Threshold energy. hν = hν 0 + K .E

Very Short Answer

1. What is a black body?

2. Which part of electromagnetic spectrum does Balmer series belong?

3. What is an atomic orbital?

5. How many p electrons are present in sulphur atom?

Long Answer Questions:

4) Extent of penetration of Orbitals of Valence Electrons: Penetration power of orbitals depends

Boron Family IIIA OR 13 ns 2 np1

Carbon Family IVA OR 14 ns 2 np 2

Oxygen Family VIA OR 16 ns 2 np 4

Halogen Family VIIA OR 17 ns 2 np 5

[(n-1)d]. The elements of III B, IV B, V B, VI B, VII B, VIII (these rows), I B and II B

iv). The general electronic configuration is ( n − 2 ) f 1−14 ( n − 1) d 0−1ns 2

v). These are also known as inner transition elements.

b) Variation of ionisation energy in a group:

d) Electron Gain Enthalpy:

Short Answer Questions

4. What is lanthanide contraction? What are its Consequences?

5. Give any four characteristic properties of transition elements?

Very Short Answer Questions

a. What is common in them?

3. What is screening effect? How is it related to IE?

4. Electron affinity of chlorine is more than that of fluorine - explain

5. Among the elements B, Al, C and Si.

6. Consider the elements N, P, O and S and arrange them in order of:

Ans. a. S<P<O<N b. N<P<O<S c. P<S<N<O

CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

Long Answer Questions:

1) What is meant by Hybridisation? Explain different types of Hybridisation involving S and

Ex: Methane Molecule

state is 1s22s12p3 i.e. 1s2 2s1 2p1x2p1y2p1Z

2).Write the salient features of Molecular Orbital Theory?

6) The electron probability distribution in a molecule is given by molecular orbital.

7) The filling of elections in molecular orbitals is similar to that of atomic orbitals

Electronic Configuration. Of N2 (σ Is ) 2 (σ *1s ) 2 (σ 2 s ) 2 (σ * 2 s ) 2 (π 2 px 2 = π 2 p y 2 ) (σ 2 p z )2

EC of O2 = (σ Is ) 2 (σ *1s ) 2 (σ 2 s ) 2 (σ * 2 s ) 2 (σ 2 pz ) (π 2 px 2 = π 2 p y 2 )(π * 2 px1 = π * 2 p y1 )

O2 molecule is paramagnetic in nature as there are 2 unpaired electrons.

Short Answer Questions

2. Explain the formation of coordinate Covalent bond with one Example?

Coordinate bond is shown by an arrow which is directed from donor to acceptor.

3. Explain the hybridization involved in SF6 molecule?

Shape is regular octahedron F

4. Define Dipole moment. Write its applications?

Very Short Answer

Electronic Configuration. Of N2 (σ Is ) 2 (σ 1s ) 2 (σ 2 s ) 2 (σ 2 s ) 2 (π 2 px 2 = π 2 p y 2 ) (σ 2 p z )2

EC of O2 = (σ Is ) 2 (σ 1s ) 2 (σ 2 s ) 2 (σ 2 s ) 2 (σ 2 pz ) (π 2 px 2 = π 2 p y 2 )(π * 2 px1 = π * 2 p y1 )