British Journal of Educational Technology (2014)

doi:10.1111/bjet.12195

Exploring factors that influence adoption of e-learning within

higher education

Emma King and Russell Boyatt

Emma King is Learning and Development adviser at the University of Warwick. After training as a teacher she
worked as a senior research manager at the Centre for Use of Research and Evidence in Education and then joined the
University of Warwick as manager of the Teaching Grid and the Learning Grid. She has more recently completed an
MSc in E-Learning with the University of Edinburgh. Her research interests include staff and educational develop-
ment, technology enhanced learning and the impact of space on teaching and learning. She has published in the
British Journal of Educational Technology and made significant contributions to publications for school focused
organisations including the National College for School Leadership and the National Union of Teachers. Russell
Boyatt is a senior academic technologist at the University of Warwick. He is responsible for supporting the use of
academic technology across the institution, including the use and implementation of virtual learning environments,
policy and technology related to learning, publication and research data repositories. He also has an interest in the
design of assignment management and automated assessment tools and techniques. He is involved with developing
online pedagogy and learning analytics and has experience of rapid prototyping and development across numerous
technologies and languages. His research background is in formal software specification and educational technology.
Address for correspondence: Ms Emma King, Learning and Development Centre, Senate House, University of
Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK. Email: e.l.king@warwick.ac.uk

Abstract
E-learning is increasingly adopted in the workplace for supporting professional develop-
ment and continuing education; however, in higher education, the use of e-learning is
predominantly used as a tool support teaching. As a relatively new priority for univer-
sities, this paper explores what influences its adoption. Challenges identified in the lit-
erature include organisational features of universities like faculty autonomy and
dispersed academic perspectives. This study, carried out at the University of Warwick,
adopted a phenomenological approach and explored participants’ perceptions through a
series of faculty-based focus groups and individual interviews. Factors identified as
influential to adoption of e-learning included the institutional infrastructure, staff atti-
tudes and skills, and perceived student expectations. Participants suggested the impor-
tance of an institutional strategy targeted at providing sufficient resources and guidance
for effective implementation. This strategy needs to be supported by a varied programme
of staff development and opportunities for sharing practice among colleagues. In further
developing understanding in this area, it would be beneficial to replicate the study with
other stakeholder groups (including the leadership team and students) to develop an
institutional strategy responsive at all levels of implementation. It would also be valuable
to investigate the extent to which these findings are replicated within other workplaces
looking to adopt innovation.

Introduction
Cheng et al. (2014) report multiple uses for e-learning in the workplace including continuing
education and professional development, where the staff takes the role of learner. However,
within universities, the role is reversed and staff takes the role of teacher using e-learning as a
workplace tool with the potential to transform the teaching and learning experience (HEFCE,
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2 British Journal of Educational Technology

Practitioner Notes
What is already known about this topic
• E-learning is being adopted in the workplace, and universities are keen to recognise
its benefits to support teaching and learning, but few institutions have been able to
provide evidence around successful implementation.
• E-learning strategies, where they exist, offer visionary profiles for organisations and
are not usually developed in consultation with staff; this can create tension in the
workplace.
• Teaching staff continue to be reluctant to adopt e-learning due to a lack of knowledge
and confidence.
What this paper adds
• Understanding of the factors that influence academics to adopt e-learning as a work-
place innovation.
• An awareness of the support required for staff to confidently implement e-learning
within their practice.
• A suggested framework or organisational strategy to support adoption of e-learning.
Implications for practice and/or policy
• Academics are keen to make use of e-learning, but strategic leadership is necessary for
implementation.
• A menu of development opportunities should be available, integrating technological
and pedagogical support closely matched to staff needs.
• Perceived student expectations are a key driver for adoption of e-learning and require
further exploration to identify best pathways forward.

2005; Laurillard, 2007). Universities, despite their diversity, all describe themselves as “modern
organisations keen to take best advantage of technology to advance all of their activities”
(Marshall, 2010, p. 184). Engaging academics in the use of technologies in this way is a relatively
new priority within the higher education sector (Browne et al, 2010). It is increasingly important
that students leave higher education with the technological skills they will require in the work-
place and consequently essential to embed e-learning throughout their studies (Laurillard,
2008). The University of Warwick’s strategy, Vision 2015, identifies an institutional aim to
extend and enhance teaching and learning and recognises the potential of technology to support
this. This study aimed to explore the factors that influenced academics’ adoption of technology to
support teaching and learning.
However, despite this positive viewpoint, few institutions have been able to provide detailed
evidence about successful implementation of e-learning and its impact on practice (Blin & Munro,
2008; OECD, 2005). E-learning is still not a common practice across universities, and uptake is
slow (Birch & Burnett, 2009), with staff often limiting its use to location and dissemination of
information and resources or incorporation of visual media into face-to-face teaching (Gupta,
White & Walmsley, 2004; Pajo & Wallace, 2001): individuals continue to be tentative and lack
confidence in both the tools (Burdett, 2003; Steel & Hudson, 2001) and their own skills (Bluteau
& Krumins, 2008). Staff reported a lack of sufficient knowledge about the use of e-learning and
appropriate technologies to support their teaching (Birch & Burnett, 2009; Blin & Munro, 2008;
Hall, 2010; OECD, 2005). In order to develop this knowledge and confidence, the staff develop-
ment opportunities provided need to be driven by pedagogy (HEFCE, 2005; Laurillard, 2007;
© 2014 British Educational Research Association
 Factors that influence adoption of e-learning 3

Schneckenberg, 2010; Stein, Shephard & Harris, 2011) and tailored to the needs and perceptions
of the target group (McPherson & Nunes, 2008).
Widespread adoption of an innovation, such as e-learning, also relies on a shared vision, clear
leadership, a conducive culture and high-quality support (Errington, 2004; McNaught & Lam,
2010). Presence of these features provides an environment in which staff feel able to innovate
while their absence can result in lower rates of adoption. Russell (2009) suggests that innovations
need to be woven into the organisational context and centrally coordinated. Consequently, lead-
ership and support from senior management are identified as critical factors for successful imple-
mentation (Birch & Burnett, 2009; Browne et al, 2010). The institutional leaders are responsible
for guiding and facilitating organisational change (McPherson & Nunes, 2006) by providing
strategic direction, adequate resources and recognition of success (Nichols, 2008). Strategic
direction within universities is often articulated through the means of an institutional strategy.
However, rather than a strict hierarchical structure that might be common to some workplaces,
a key feature of higher education institutions is the high degree of autonomy across faculties
(Schneckenberg, 2009). This autonomy stretches through faculties, departments and to indi-
vidual academics who McPherson and Nunes (2006, p. 554) report “are unlikely to sign up to a
corporate ‘vision’ imposed from the top without real opportunities for debate and negotiation.”
This potential for varied and dispersed perspectives presents challenges for standardised imple-
mentation across the institution.
In addition, e-learning strategies are rarely tailored to teaching and learning needs, instead
offering a visionary profile for the organisation (Stensaker, Maassen, Borgan, Oftebro & Karseth,
2007), where e-learning strategies are found to exist they often focus around technology and are
developed without consultation with teaching staff which can result in a tension between an
institution and its academics (Maddux & Johnson, 2010). This technology-driven approach acts
as a barrier to adoption (Birch & Burnett, 2009). A lack of pedagogic consideration or direction
can be a concern to academic staff (O’Neill, Singh, O’Donoghue & Cope, 2004) and result in
adoption of autonomous approaches that make them feel like they are operating outside of, or in
opposition to, the institution’s core strategy (Forsyth, Pizzica, Laxton & Mahony, 2010).
These findings suggest that successful implementation of e-learning relies on the development of
an institutional strategy which, in addition to offering a shared vision, directly engages with the
needs and concerns of staff responsible for implementation. Consultation with staff is a crucial
first step. This study analyses the perceptions of 48 colleagues of the factors that influence
adoption of e-learning within higher education with a view to informing an organisational
approach to supporting its adoption.

Methodology
This study adopted a phenomenological approach to develop a detailed understanding of partici-
pants’ perspectives (Denscombe, 2007; Giorgi, 1985) giving consideration to how participants’
experiences were linked to both social and cultural contexts (Flood, 2010). Focus groups were
carried out with each faculty within the institution and also included colleagues from academic
support departments. These focus groups were supplemented by individual interviews with par-
ticipants who were unable to attend (Bryman, 2004). A demographic questionnaire was com-
pleted by all participants helping to assess the extent to which the sample might be representative
of the population of the university.
The study involved 48 participants: 37 in the seven focus groups and a further 11 in individual
interviews. Although the sample involved less than 5% of academic staff, demographic data
demonstrated inclusion of participants from every faculty, a relatively even gender split and wide
distribution of age (from under 25 to over 60) and years of teaching experience (from 8 months
© 2014 British Educational Research Association
4 British Journal of Educational Technology

to 35 years). The demographics also demonstrated variance in the extent to which colleagues
used e-learning to support their teaching; some made no use of it, while others reported extensive
use. These demographics suggest that any findings of this study should be representative of the
wider population of staff within the institution and possibly other similar organisations.
The focus group and interview data were analysed following an iterative framework suggested by
Denscombe (2007, p. 292): data coding, categorisation, identification of themes and interpreta-
tion. The final stage of analysis involved looking for patterns and conclusions specifically relating
to the research questions for this study (Sarantakos, 1998). Adopting an iterative approach,
rather than a set of codes and themes drawn from the literature review, aimed to ensure that no
pre-judgements influenced the analysis.

Analysis
Participants identified three key factors that impacted on adoption of e-learning:
• the infrastructure of the institution;
• staff attitudes and attributes including their skills and confidence in using technology; and
• perceived student expectations.

Institutional infrastructure
Participants reported a lack of strategic direction in the use of e-learning, suggesting this often
resulted in staff taking inconsistent and disconnected approaches requiring a high level of indi-
vidual commitment. Participants also reported that developing online material was an additional
responsibility without recognition of the time it took and was often perceived by the institution
as a cost-saving alternative. Participants suggested that for e-learning to be successfully imple-
mented, the institution needed to recognise it as a priority and develop a supportive institutional
culture offering time and space for the following:
• exploration of available tools and development of the skills to use them;
• creating resources/activities and piloting them;
• developing students skills in using the tools;
• engaging with students in synchronous and asynchronous activities; and
• monitoring and updating resources.
The institution’s perceived piecemeal approach and lack of integration between the available
tools and central systems made it difficult for academics to use them effectively. Participants
suggested the need for a more coordinated approach. A starting point for this would be consid-
eration of how available technologies might be effectively integrated with existing pedagogic
practices and systems.

Staff attitudes and attributes

Participants suggested that implementation of e-learning needed to be underpinned with inte-
grated technological and pedagogical support that closely matched staff needs.
That means not just supporting through more conventional instruction but recognising the benefits,
acknowledging the barriers and raising awareness.
A key step for broadening engagement is supporting staff to recognise the affordances of tech-
nology and how it might help them to maintain a high-quality learning experience for their
students.
There’s a lot of resistance to technology but if you can demonstrate something that’s going to reduce
amount of time or genuinely going to make life easier then fine.
In addition to an interest in teaching and technologies, staff confidence was identified as a key
factor in the decision to adopt.
© 2014 British Educational Research Association
 Factors that influence adoption of e-learning 5

Colleagues are afraid to say I don’t know or I don’t understand especially if they’re a senior member of
staff.
. . . it needs to be down to the individual, we have the stars like XXXX who’s always going to do new stuff
because that’s just the person he is. Other people who aren’t sure how shouldn’t feel they have to be like that,
they might feel they don’t have the time or his expertise, enthusiasm or contacts.
Participants recognised the range of existing support and funding across the institution but
reported their colleagues’ lack of awareness of and engagement with these offerings.
There can be a lack of vision both within particular departments and with individuals within them—there
is support available but they don’t necessarily draw on it.
Participants suggested that while building on existing provision of face-to-face training, addi-
tional mechanisms might be introduced including online how-to guides, recipes for implement-
ing new technology and opportunities for sharing practice.

Perceived student expectations

Participants in all of the focus groups identified student expectations as a factor that influenced
their adoption of e-learning.
It is part of the student world in the same way a pencil and a pen were in our time. We need to work with
what we’ve got and exploit it.
Students are asking for it and suggesting that it’s used. Based on their feedback it seems to be improving their
understanding, they’re finding it helpful.
One student expectation reported was the availability of digital resources accessible anytime and
anywhere: participants suggested that students expected to access all course materials online
including resources used as part of face-to-face sessions and supplementary resources necessary
to complete assignments. While some colleagues saw this as a potential limitation in students’
learning behaviours, others suggested that staff could no longer expect students to continue to
use hard copy materials.
Students use the internet now rather than text books—they don’t understand why they’d spend money
when the can access this material online. They’re the “touch a button” generation not “turn the page.”
Participants suggested that if students are enthusiastic to make use of these digital resources,
they need to be supported to develop complementary skills to locate and evaluate information
they encounter.
However, although participants’ general opinion was that students responded favourably to the
use of e-learning, they suggested not all students were confident and enthusiastic.
They can see e-learning as a distraction. They want the seminar to be serious and can prefer hard copy tasks.
...
While students were perceived to want on-demand access to digital resources and expect virtual
contact with academics, participants suggested that they did not want e-learning to replace
face-to-face teaching.
Students sometimes might resent e-learning as it’s just being pushed out at them and they’re not getting that
human contact.
Colleagues suggested that the increased student fees would impact on student expectations; some
reflected that this would mean increased demand for online activities, while others suggested
students would demand more face-to-face time with academics.
With time it’s becoming more and more important and it’s going to be increasingly demanded, particularly
linked to the restructuring of fees. Students (and parents) are already asking for these additional learning
opportunities.
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6 British Journal of Educational Technology

In the future knowledge will be less accessible/democratic, increasingly on a paid basis and more monetary
driven. This creates a particular place for the university giving access to certain e-knowledge which we need
to think about.
These findings suggest that for successful implementation of e-learning, students need to be
supported to develop realistic expectations, an understanding of the implications of learning with
technology and skills for engaging in these new ways of learning and make the most out of the
opportunities they present.

A proposed institutional strategy

Reflecting on the factors that influenced the adoption of e-learning, participants suggested the
need for an institutional strategy that:
• defines e-learning;
• provides a rationale for its use;
• sets clear expectations for staff and students;
• models the use of innovative teaching methods;
• provides frameworks for implementation that recognise different disciplinary contexts;
• demonstrates institutional investment for the development of e-learning; and
• offers staff-appropriate support to develop their skills and understanding.

Discussion
The findings identify perceptions of three key factors on adoption of e-learning as a workplace
innovation: institution infrastructure, staff attitudes and attributes, and perceived student expec-
tations. These extend beyond the interplay between individual and institution that Hardaker and
Singh (2011) suggest by including student expectations in the mix.

Institutional infrastructure
The findings identify strategic direction as the central feature of the organisational infrastructure
that supports staff to adopt e-learning. This echoes evidence from the literature that identify this
leadership (Birch & Burnett, 2009; Browne et al, 2010) and sufficient time (Pajo & Wallace,
2001; Steel & Hudson, 2001) as critical to adoption. However, participants in this study reported
the lack of a coherent institutional-wide approach offering the guidance, resources and recogni-
tion necessary to encourage and support staff.
Participants recognised the need for a combined top-down and bottom-up approach, consistent
with the evidence from the literature (Bottomley, Spratt & Rice, 1999; Cook, Holley & Andrew,
2007; O’Neill et al, 2004), and that without institutional direction, the decision to use e-learning
often fell by the wayside due to pressures to meet other priorities. Participants suggested that
colleagues in leadership roles need to develop their understanding of what is involved in creating
and maintaining high-quality e-learning resources which would facilitate them to identify and
commit sufficient staff time to embedding the innovation.
A further barrier to institutional adoption was the piecemeal approach to availability of tech-
nologies across the institution. Participants reported the need for a more coordinated approach
to provision of technologies and their integration with existing systems and practices. This sug-
gests the need for on-going consultation and collaboration with staff to ensure a more coherent
approach to meet institutional needs.

Staff attitudes and attributes

This study identified that the drive to use e-learning is most common at the level of the individual;
this is consistent with evidence from the literature (Russell, 2009). Staff attitudes, confidence and
skills to make use of e-learning were all factors perceived to impact on its adoption. The findings
highlighted the importance of a pedagogic-driven approach to implementation that supports staff
© 2014 British Educational Research Association
 Factors that influence adoption of e-learning 7

in recognising the potential of technology to add value to students’ learning experiences. While
staff recognised that support was available centrally, they suggested it needed to be more closely
tailored to the specific needs of staff and extended to include online guidance accessible at point
of need and communities of practice that facilitated sharing between colleagues. These findings
reflect evidence from the literature which report that staff needs to be provided with flexible
support (Brew & Boud, 1996; Schneckenberg, 2009).
In addition, the results suggest that underpinning staff motivation to adopt e-learning is their
broader interest in teaching and learning. This implies a bigger challenge for the institution,
balancing the priorities of research and teaching, which may require more detailed exploration.

Perceived student expectations

Browne et al (2010) identify student expectations as one of the main drivers for adoption of
e-learning but offer little further detail about the nature of these. The findings of this study also
identified student expectations as critical to adoption of e-learning; students are perceived to
demand access to resources anytime and anywhere and are increasingly reluctant to make use of
hard copy resources.
However, students’ confidence with online tools and resources was perceived to vary, and the
findings suggest that that students need to be supported to develop skills to engage effectively with
the opportunities e-learning affords. Students’ previous experiences might offer a starting point
for implementing technology into their learning.
It is not clear whether this is an accurate portrayal of student views or whether staff attributed
their own views to the students. It would be valuable to ascertain whether this perception is a true
representation by repeating this study with students. The findings also suggest that demand for
e-learning will change with the introduction of increased university fees so it might be beneficial
to repeat these investigations in a few years’ time.

Conclusion
The findings of this study suggest the need to continue to develop the organisational infrastruc-
ture and culture in order to support adoption of e-learning as a workplace innovation. The
organisation needs to provide staff with direction, guidance and support as they implement
e-learning, in addition to sufficient time and resources. A suggested first step in developing this is
the introduction of an institutional e-learning strategy outlining expectations for staff and stu-
dents and demonstrating the commitment of the leadership team. This strategy should be sup-
ported by the provision of reliable and consistently available resources: staff should know what
technology is available to them whether teaching face-to-face or online. Consultation with staff to
identify the technologies they require and use is a valuable starting point.
Pedagogical support is central to effective implementation of e-learning. Findings suggest that the
existing face-to-face support needs to be complemented by online guidance and facilitated com-
munities of practice that encourage colleagues to share their use of e-learning with one another.
These support mechanisms could also help staff to explore student expectations, recognise the
potential diversity in student confidence and ability, and support students to develop the skills
they need to successfully engage.
Despite a common recognition of the potential for e-learning to support teaching, it is still not
widely embedded. These findings suggest the benefits of developing a menu of implementation
opportunities for academic staff rather one single approach. The existing support mechanisms
also need to be more widely marketed to colleagues across the institution as the findings suggest
a lack of awareness of what’s available. One suggested mechanism for increasing engagement is
the introduction of faculty or departmental e-learning champions.
© 2014 British Educational Research Association
8 British Journal of Educational Technology

Areas for further research

This study focuses specifically on the views of staff who teach or support teaching and learning,
just one group of stakeholders in successful adoption of e-learning. It would be valuable to carry
out additional focus groups with the institutional leadership as well as students in order to further
develop plans for implementation of the suggested strategy: the leadership team would be able to
offer an institutional overview with respect to embedding e-learning, and talking to students
would allow the perceived student expectations reported in this study to be confirmed or disputed.
It would also be beneficial to repeat these investigations a few years after the introduction of
higher university fees to explore any changes in the expectations of each stakeholder group.
It would also be valuable to investigate the extent to which these findings are replicated in other
workplaces looking to adopt innovative working practices.
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