The Natural Water (Hydrologic) Cycle
The vast majority of water on Earth is saline (salty) and stored in the oceans. Meanwhile, most of the
world's fresh water is in the form of ice, snow, and groundwater. This means a significant fraction of the
water pool is largely isolated from the water cycle. In contrast, the water stored in rivers, lakes, and
ocean surface is relatively rapidly cycled as it evaporates into the atmosphere and then falls back to the
surface as precipitation. The atmospheric pool of water turns over most rapidly because it is small
compared to the other pools (e.g. <15% of the freshwater lake pool). Evaporation is the process whereby
water is converted from a liquid into a vapor as a result of absorbing energy (usually from solar
radiation). Evaporation from vegetated land is referred to as evapotranspiration because it includes
water transpired by plants, i.e. water taken up from the soil by roots, transported to leaves and
evaporated from leaf surfaces into the atmosphere via stomatal pores. Precipitation is the conversion of
atmospheric water from vapor into liquid (rain) or solid forms (snow, hail) that then fall to Earth's
surface. Some water from precipitation moves over the land surface by surface runoff and streamflow,
while other water from precipitation infiltrates the soil and moves below the surface as groundwater
discharge. Water vapor in the atmosphere is commonly moved away from the source of evaporation by
wind and the movement of air masses. Consequently, most water falling as precipitation comes from a
source of evaporation that is located upwind. Nonetheless, local sources of evaporation can contribute
as much as 25-33% of water in precipitation.
A diagrammatic representation of the hydrological cycle with labels
The Water Cycle. Figure illustrates the water cycle on, above, and below the Earth's surface. Source: U.S.
Department of the Interior and U.S. Geological Survey, The Water Cycle.
Human Interactions with the Water Cycle
Freshwater supply is one of the most important provisioning ecosystem services on which human well-
being depends. The greatest use of this water is for irrigation in agriculture, but significant quantities of
water are also extracted for public and municipal use, as well as industrial applications and power
generation.
Other major human interventions in the water cycle involve changes in land cover and infrastructure
development of river networks. As we have deforested areas for wood supply and agricultural
development we have reduced the amount of vegetation, which naturally acts to trap precipitation as it
falls and slow the rate of infiltration into the ground. As a consequence, surface runoff has increased.
This, in turn, means flood peaks are greater and erosion is increased. Erosion lowers soil quality and
deposits sediment in river channels, where it can block navigation and harm aquatic plants and animals.
Urbanization also accelerates streamflow by preventing precipitation from filtering into the soil and
shunting it into drainage systems. Additional physical infrastructure has been added to river networks
with the aim of altering the volume, timing, and direction of water flows for human benefit. This is
achieved with reservoirs, weirs, and diversion channels. For example, so much water is removed or
redirected from the Colorado River in the western United States that, despite its considerable size, in
some years it is dry before reaching the sea in Mexico. We also exploit waterways through their use for
navigation, recreation, hydroelectricity generation and waste disposal. These activities, especially waste
disposal, do not necessarily involve removal of water, but do have impacts on water quality and water
flow that have negative consequences for the physical and biological properties of aquatic ecosystems.
An image of an
Indonesian river with floating logs of wood
The water cycle is key to the ecosystem service of climate regulation as well as being an essential
supporting service that impacts the function of all ecosystems. Consider the widespread impacts on
diverse natural and human systems when major droughts or floods occur. Consequently, human
disruptions of the natural water cycle have many undesirable effects and challenge sustainable
development. There are two major concerns. First, the need to balance rising human demand with the
need to make our water use sustainable by reversing ecosystem damage from excess removal and
pollution of water. Traditionally, considerable emphasis has been on finding and accessing more supply,
but the negative environmental impacts of this approach are now appreciated, and improving the
efficiency of water use is now a major goal. Second, there is a need for a safe water supply in many parts
of the world, which depends on reducing water pollution and improving water treatment facilities.
