Hydrology Course

Chapter 1: Hydrological Cycle

I-Introduction

Allah says in the Quran:

"Have not those who disbelieved seen that the heavens and the earth were a closed mass, then
We parted them and made from water every living thing? Will they not then believe?" (Al-
Anbiya: 30)
"Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of the night and the
day, and the ships that sail through the sea with that which benefits people, and the water
which Allah sends down from the sky, and gives life thereby to the earth after it had been
lifeless, and disperses therein every kind of moving creature, and in the changing of the winds,
and the clouds controlled between the heaven and the earth, are certainly signs for people
who understand." (Al-Baqara: 164)
In the Old Testament, we find the following two verses:
"All streams run into the sea, yet the sea is not full; to the place where the streams flow, there
they return to flow again." (Ecclesiastes 1:7)
"He calls the waters of the sea, and pours them out on the surface of the earth; the Lord is his
name." (Amos 9:6)
Almighty God invites us to reflect on the origin and complexity of the universe. He reminds us
that the heavens and the earth were once united, and that it is He who separated them and
gave life to all things through water. The signs of divine creation are omnipresent: the
alternation of day and night, the ships that sail the seas, the rain that gives life to the earth,
the animals that inhabit it, the winds and the clouds. He also reminds us that water is a vital
and precious element and that its strength and constant renewal make it a symbol of God's
power and wisdom.
From the biblical era to the Middle Ages, many philosophers, naturalists, poets, physicists, and
geographers studied the movements of water in nature, drawing inspiration from the theories
of Greek philosophers. From the Renaissance (15th century) to around 1800, observations,
theories, experiments, and measurements helped to refine our increasingly accurate
understanding of the water cycle. At the beginning of the 19th century, all the elements of the
water cycle (rain, runoff, infiltration, evaporation) were understood and described. Some of
them were even quantified with fairly accurate orders of magnitude. During these two
centuries, measurements and experiments multiplied; the modern foundations of water
sciences were firmly established, including hydraulics and groundwater hydraulics.
Hydrology is the science that deals with water problems and its cycle in nature as well as its
evolution on the surface of the earth and in the soil. Like all sciences, hydrology relies on many
other sciences and disciplines, some of which are fundamental, such as mathematics
(statistics), hydraulics, etc., and others that are related to earth sciences and the physical
environment. In general, these include metrology and climatology, geomorphology, geology,
oceanography, etc. Today, the work of hydrologists is essential for all water and hydraulic
development projects, as well as for the development of the physical environment in general.
In a very general way, hydrology can be defined as the study of the water cycle and the
estimation of its various fluxes. Hydrology in the broad sense includes:
Climatology: Precipitation, return to the atmosphere, transfers, etc.
Surface water hydrology in the strict sense: Study of flows on the surface of the earth (rivers,
streams, runoff)
Unsaturated groundwater hydrodynamics: Study of exchanges between surface water and
groundwater (infiltration, return to the atmosphere from aquifers, etc.)
Groundwater hydrodynamics: Study of flows in saturated groundwater (flow in porous media
such as aquifers)

II-Water cycle
II-1- Water phase states
Water, source of all life, is present in the earth and the earth's atmosphere in three phase
states:
Solid: snow and ice
Liquid: Pure water (river and groundwater) or wastewater (sewage systems) or saline water
(sea, ocean 35 g/l) or water loaded with solutes (brackish water 1-10 g/l in groundwater near
the coast).
Gaseous: Water vapour in the air masses of the atmosphere at different degrees of pressure
and saturation.

II-2- Water phase diagram

The water phase diagram defines the domains of existence of the three phase of water. It is a
graphical representation of the domains of the phase of water as a function of temperature
and pressure.

Figure 1: Water phase diagram

The water phase diagram is an essential tool for understanding the conditions under which
liquid water is present both on earth and in the atmosphere. However, this diagram is not
sufficient to explain the presence of water vapour at temperatures below boiling point. To do
this, we need to take into account the notion of evaporation and saturation vapour pressure
(maximum water vapour pressure in a gas in equilibrium with liquid water, a pressure that
depends on pressure and temperature conditions, which explains why linen dries at ambient
pressure without being heated to 100°C).
II-2- Water Phase Changes
Phase changes of water depend primarily on temperature and pressure.
At ordinary (atmospheric) pressure:
Below 0°C, water is in a solid phase (ice)
Above 0°C, ice melts and turns into water (melting)
Above 100°C, water becomes a gas (water vapour) (vaporization)
The vaporization of water below its boiling point is called evaporation
Conversely, when the temperature drops, water vapour condenses and turns into liquid
(condensation)
Water vapour can turn into ice if the temperature drops low enough (freezing or solid
condensation)
Water is constantly circulating on Earth and undergoes changes in state. The set of all water
transformation and transfer processes constitutes the water cycle.

Figure 2: Water phase changes

II-3- Water Distribution on earth

Nearly 70% of the Earth's surface is covered in water, mainly in the form of oceans. However,
water is also present in other forms: liquid, gas (water vapour), and solid. Water is therefore
very present on Earth, but 97.40% of its volume is saltwater and 1.98% is locked up in ice.
This leaves only 0.62% of freshwater in liquid form. Freshwater is water that contains less
than 3 grams of salt per litter, unlike hard water or seawater. It usually contains even less
than one gram of dissolved solids (such as salts, metals, and nutrients) per litter. Of this liquid
freshwater, the vast majority is underground.
 Table1: Water distribution on earth

Marine Waters
Marine waters contain an average of 35 grams of salt per litter.
Marine waters constitute an inexhaustible resource (desalination techniques).
Glaciers and Polar Ice
Glaciers, polar ice and icebergs.
Peatland
Wetland colonized by vegetation in a water-saturated environment.
Lithosphere Waters (Groundwater)
Ranks second after glaciers and polar ice and far ahead of continental freshwater.
These waters are heavily exploited in arid areas, and over-exploitation leads to the drying up
of aquifers.
In coastal aquifers, over-exploitation of these waters leads to the gradual replacement of
freshwater by saltwater.
Soil moisture
The water content of the soil.
Continental Freshwater
Freshwater from lakes, rivers, streams and other watercourses.
These waters are supplied by precipitation and represent a small percentage of the total
volume of water.
They are easily accessible but vulnerable to pollution.
Atmospheric waters
Water vapour contained in air masses.
II-4- Natural Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)
The concept of the hydrological cycle encompasses all the processes of water transformation
and movement.
Water vapour is produced in the atmosphere by evaporation from surface water or by
transpiration from vegetation.
This water vapour present in the atmosphere condenses to form precipitation that falls on
the Earth.
Part of the precipitation water is intercepted by vegetation, another part infiltrates the soil to
feed the aquifers, another part flows into streams, tributaries or rivers, and another part is
stored in topographic depressions or in the form of ice on reliefs.

Figure 4: Water cycle

Water vapour is produced in the atmosphere through evaporation from surface water bodies
or by transpiration from vegetation. This water vapour present in the atmosphere condenses
to form precipitation that falls on the Earth.
Part of the precipitation water is intercepted by vegetation.
Another part infiltrates the soil to feed the aquifers.
Another part flows into streams, tributaries, or rivers.
Another part is stored in topographic depressions or in the form of ice on reliefs.
Evapotranspiration: The process of water changing from a liquid to a gas, either through the
physical process of evaporation or through the biological process of plant transpiration.
Precipitation: When condensation conditions are favourable, the water vapour present in the
atmosphere transforms into rain or snow that falls on the Earth.
Runoff: Part of the precipitation water flows over the land surface under the influence of
gravity to form tributaries and rivers.
Interception: Part of the precipitation water is retained by vegetation.
Storage in mountains: Part of the precipitation water is stored or retained in solid form at
high altitudes.
Storage in depressions: Part of the precipitation water is retained in hollows and depressions
in the ground (lakes).
Infiltration: Part of the precipitation water penetrates under the influence of gravity into the
soil layers.
Percolation: Part of the water percolates deep down to feed the aquifers.