UNIT-3

Q.1:- Water cycle

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological cycle, is a
biogeochemical cycle that describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below
the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the
partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water (salt water)
and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water
moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the
atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation,
precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes
through different forms: liquid, solid (ice)

and vapor. The ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86% of global
evaporation.

The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. When
water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When
it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence
climate.

The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with
freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also
involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through processes including erosion
and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and
ecosystems on the planet.

Overall process

The water cycle is powered from the energy emitted by the sun. This energy heats water in
the ocean and seas. Water evaporates as water vapor into the air. Some ice and snow
sublimates directly into water vapor. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and
evaporated from the soil. The water molecule H2O has smaller molecular mass than the major
components of the atmosphere, nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) and hence is less dense. Due
to the significant difference in density, buoyancy drives humid air higher. As altitude increases,
air pressure decreases and the temperature drops (see Gas laws). The lower temperature
causes water vapor to condense into tiny liquid water droplets which are heavier than the air,
and which fall unless supported by an updraft. A huge concentration of these droplets over a
large area in the atmosphere become visible as cloud, while condensation near ground level
is referred to as fog.

Atmospheric circulation moves water vapor around the globe; cloud particles collide, grow,
and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow,
hail, or sleet, and can accumulate in ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for
thousands of years. Most water falls as rain back into the ocean or onto land, where the water
flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of this runoff enters rivers, with streamflow
moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and water emerging from the ground (groundwater)
may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers; much of it soaks into the
ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers,
which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land
surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater
discharge. Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater
springs. In river valleys and floodplains, there is often continuous water exchange between
surface water and ground water in the hyporheic zone. Over time, the water returns to the
ocean, to continue the water cycle.

The ocean plays a key role in the water cycle. The ocean holds "97% of the total water on the
planet; 78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean, and it is the source of 86% of global
evaporation".

Physical processes

The water cycle involves the following processes:

Advection:

The movement of water through the atmosphere. Without advection, water that evaporated
over the oceans could not precipitate over land. Atmospheric rivers that move large volumes
of water vapor over long distances are an example of advection.

Canopy interception:

The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage eventually evaporates back to the
atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.

Condensation:
The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.

Deposition:

This refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.

Evaporation:

The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies
of water into the overlying atmosphere. The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar
radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together
they are specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual evapotranspiration
amounts to approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water,
434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the oceans. 86% of global evaporation
occurs over the ocean.

Infiltration :

The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water
becomes soil moisture or groundwater. A recent global study using water stable isotopes,
however, shows that not all soil moisture is equally available for groundwater recharge or for
plant transpiration.

Percolation:

Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity.

Precipitation :

Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most precipitation occurs as rain, but
also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet. Approximately
3
505,000 km (121,000 cu mi) of water falls as precipitation each year,
398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans. The rain on land contains
107,000 km3 (26,000 cu mi) of water per year and a snowing only 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi). 78%
of global precipitation occurs over the ocean.

Runoff:

The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff
and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air,
become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.

Snow melt :

The runoff produced by melting snow.

Sublimation:
 The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor by passing the liquid
state.

Subsurface flow:

The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return
to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water
returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force
of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly and is replenished
slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.

Transpiration :

The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air.

Q.2:- Global Water Distribution

Around the world from total 100% of water 97% of water are non-usable water contains more
amount of salts and salinity these kind of water are from oceans. And remaining 3% of water
is fresh water that we can easily usable.
Let us consider the 3% of fresh water as 100% in that 79% of water is held in the form of
icecaps and glaciers and 20% of water is a ground water and remaining 1% of water is easily
accessible fresh surface water

Let us consider 1% of easily accessible fresh surface water as 100% in that 52% of
water is from lakes and 38% of water retains in soil moisture and from remaining 2% 1% of
water is rivers and remaining 1% of water is accessible water in plants.

In these way globally water distribution can be divided and survived accordingly.

Q.3:- Fresh Water Supply system

water supply system, infrastructure for the collection, transmission, treatment, storage, and
distribution of water for homes, commercial establishments, industry, and irrigation, as well
as for such public needs as firefighting and street flushing. Of all municipal services, provision
of potable water is perhaps the most vital. People depend on water for drinking, cooking,
washing, carrying away wastes, and other domestic needs. Water supply systems must also
meet requirements for public, commercial, and industrial activities. In all cases, the water
must fulfill both quality and quantity requirements.

A water supply network or water supply system is a system of engineered hydrologic and
hydraulic components that provide water supply. A water supply system typically includes the
following:

1. A drainage basin (see water purification – sources of drinking water)

2. A raw water collection point (above or below ground) where the water accumulates, such
as a lake, a river, or groundwater from an underground aquifer. Raw water may be transferred
using uncovered ground-level aqueducts, covered tunnels, or underground water pipes to
water purification facilities.

3. Water purification facilities. Treated water is transferred using water pipes (usually
underground).

4. Water storage facilities such as reservoirs, water tanks, or water towers. Smaller water
systems may store the water in cisterns or pressure vessels. Tall buildings may also need to
store water locally in pressure vessels in order for the water to reach the upper floors.

5. Additional water pressurizing components such as pumping stations may need to be

situated at the outlet of underground or aboveground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity flow is
impractical).

6. A pipe network for distribution of water to consumers (which may be private houses or
industrial, commercial, or institution establishments) and other usage points (such as fire
hydrants)
7. Connections to the sewers (underground pipes, or aboveground ditches in some developing
countries) are generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the sewer system is
considered to be a separate system, rather than part of the water supply system.

Water supply networks are often run by public utilities of the water industry.

Water abstraction and raw water transfer

Raw water (untreated) is from a surface water source (such as an intake on a lake or a river)
or from a groundwater source (such as a water well drawing from an underground aquifer)
within the watershed that provides the water resource.

The raw water is transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered aqueducts,
covered tunnels or underground water pipes

Water treatment

Virtually all large systems must treat the water; a fact that is tightly regulated by global,
state and federal agencies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO) or the United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Water treatment must occur before the product
reaches the consumer and afterwards (when it is discharged again). Water purification usually
occurs close to the final delivery points to reduce pumping costs and the chances of the water
becoming contaminated after treatment.

Traditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three steps: clarification,
filtration and disinfection. Clarification refers to the separation of particles (dirt, organic
matter, etc.) from the water stream. Chemical addition (i.e. alum, ferric chloride) destabilizes
the particle charges and prepares them for clarification either by settling or floating out of the
water stream. Sand, anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, removing
smaller particulate matter. While other methods of disinfection exist, the preferred method is
via chlorine addition. Chlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and maintains a
residual to protect the water supply through the supply network.

Water distribution network

The product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called potable water if it meets the
water quality standards required for human consumption.

The water in the supply network is maintained at positive pressure to ensure that water
reaches all parts of the network, that a sufficient flow is available at every take-off point and
to ensure that untreated water in the ground cannot enter the network. The water is typically
pressurised by pumping the water into storage tanks constructed at the highest local point in
the network. One network may have several such service reservoirs.

In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a pressure vessel or even by an
underground cistern (the latter however does need additional pressurizing). This eliminates
the need of a water-tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water
pressure.

These systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments, such as cities, or
other public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise (see water
privatization). Water supply networks are part of the master planning of communities,
counties, and municipalities. Their planning and design requires the expertise of city planners
and civil engineers, who must consider many factors, such as location, current demand, future
growth, leakage, pressure, pipe size, pressure loss, fire fighting flows, etc.—using pipe
network analysis and other tools.

As water passes through the distribution system, the water quality can degrade by chemical
reactions and biological processes. Corrosion of metal pipe materials in the distribution
system can cause the release of metals into the water with undesirable aesthetic and health
effects. Release of iron from unlined iron pipes can result in customer reports of "red water"
at the tap. Release of copper from copper pipes can result in customer reports of "blue water"
and/or a metallic taste. Release of lead can occur from the solder used to join copper pipe
together or from brass fixtures. Copper and lead levels at the consumer's tap are regulated to
protect consumer health.

Utilities will often adjust the chemistry of the water before distribution to minimize its
corrosiveness. The simplest adjustment involves control of pH and alkalinity to produce a
water that tends to passivate corrosion by depositing a layer of calcium carbonate. Corrosion
inhibitors are often added to reduce release of metals into the water. Common corrosion
inhibitors added to the water are phosphates and silicates.

Maintenance of a biologically safe drinking water is another goal in water distribution.

Typically, a chlorine based disinfectant, such as sodium hypochlorite or monochloramine is
added to the water as it leaves the treatment plant. Booster stations can be placed within the
distribution system to ensure that all areas of the distribution system have adequate sustained
levels of disinfection.

UNIT-2

Q.4:-DICUSS THE DIFFERENT COMPOSITION OF SOILS

Composition of Soil:
Soil contains air, water, and minerals as well as plant and animal matter, both living and dead.
These soil components fall into two categories. In the first category are biotic factors—all the
living and once-living things in soil, such as plants and insects. The second category consists
of abiotic factors, which include all nonliving things—for example, minerals, water, and air.
The most common minerals found in soil that support plant growth are phosphorus, and
potassium and also, nitrogen gas. Other, less common minerals include calcium, magnesium,
and sulfur. The biotic and abiotic factors in the soil are what make up the soil’s composition.

Soil composition is an important aspect of nutrient management. While soil minerals

and organic matter hold and store nutrients, soil water is what readily provides nutrients for
plant uptake. Soil air, too, plays an integral role since many of the microorganisms that live in
the soil need air to undergo the biological processes that release additional nutrients into the
soil.

The basic components of soil are minerals, organic matter, water and air. The typical soil
consists of approximately 45% mineral, 5% organic matter, 20-30% water, and 20-30% air.
These percentages are only generalizations at best. In reality, the soil is very complex and
dynamic. The composition of the soil can fluctuate on a daily basis, depending on numerous
factors such as water supply, cultivation practices, and/or soil type.

The amount of each of the four major components of soil depends on the quantity of
vegetation, soil compaction, and water present in the soil. A good, healthy soil has sufficient
air, water, minerals, and organic material to promote and sustain plant life.

The organic material of soil, called humus, is made up of microorganisms (dead and alive), and
dead animals and plants in varying stages of decay. Humus improves soil structure, providing
plants with water and minerals. The inorganic material of soil is composed of rock, slowly
broken down into smaller particles that vary in size. Soil particles that are 0.1 to 2 mm in
diameter are sand. Soil particles between 0.002 and 0.1 mm are called silt, and even smaller
particles, less than 0.002 mm in diameter, are called clay. Some soils have no dominant particle
size, containing a mixture of sand, silt, and humus; these soils are called loams.
Key Points

The chemical composition of the soil, the topography, and the presence of living organisms
determines the quality of soil.

In general, soil contains 40-45% inorganic matter, 5% organic matter, 25% water, and 25% air.

In order to sustain plant life, the proper mix of air, water, minerals, and organic material is
required.

Humus, the organic material in soil, is composed of microorganisms (dead and alive) and
decaying plants.

The inorganic material of soil is composed of rock, which is broken down into small particles
of sand (0.1 to 2 mm), silt (0.002 to 0.1 mm), and clay (less than 0.002 mm).

Loam is a soil that is a mix sand, silt, and humus.

Key Terms

Loam: soil with no dominant particle size that contains a mixture of sand, silt, and humus

Humus: a large group of natural organic compounds found in the soil composed of decaying
plants and dead and living microorganisms

Q.5:DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SANDY SOILS AND CLAYEY SOIL

SANDY SOILS: Sandy Soil is light, warm, dry and tends to be acidic and low in nutrients. Sandy
soils are often known as light soils due to their high proportion of sand and little clay (clay
weighs more than sand).

These soils have quick water drainage and are easy to work with. They are quicker to warm up
in spring than clay soils but tend to dry out in summer and suffer from low nutrients that are
washed away by rain.

The addition of organic matter can help give plants an additional boost of nutrients by
improving the nutrient and water holding capacity of the soil.

Sl.No Clayey soil Sandy soil

The clayey soil has a high proportion of small (fine) The sandy soil has a high proportion of large
1.
particles. particles.

2. The particles are tightly packed. The particles are loosely packed.
3. Clayey soil is heavy in weight. Sandy soil is light in weight.

Sandy soils are not suitable for growing

4. Clayey soils are good for growing various crops.
various crops.

5. Less air is trapped between the particles. More air is trapped between the particles.

6. This soil can not drain water quickly. This soil can drain water quickly.

The proportion of smaller or of fine particles is

7. The proportion of larger particles is more.
more.

It can hold good amount of water or water retention It cannot hold water or water retention
8.
capacity high capacity less.

9. It is fertile It is not fertile.

Q.6:-IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE ON ENVIRONMENT AND PEOPLE

Agriculture profoundly impacts the environment and people by driving land-use change,
which causes habitat loss and biodiversity decline, and polluting water and air through
fertilizers and pesticides. It's a significant source of greenhouse gases contributing to climate
change and consumes vast amounts of freshwater, leading to water scarcity. For people,
agriculture sustains food and fiber production, provides livelihoods, but also leads to health
risks from pollution and economic challenges from resource depletion.

Environmental Impacts

• Land Use and Deforestation:

Agriculture is a major driver of deforestation and habitat destruction, converting forests and
wildlands into farmland. This loss of natural habitat leads to a decline in biodiversity and
disrupts ecosystems.

• Soil Degradation:

Intensive farming practices like heavy tilling and monocultures can lead to soil erosion, loss of
fertile topsoil, and reduced soil fertility.

• Water Pollution:
Runoff from farms carries pesticides, fertilizers (nitrates and phosphates), and other chemicals
into waterways, polluting rivers, lakes, and oceans. This causes issues like eutrophication and
impacts aquatic ecosystems.

• Greenhouse Gas Emissions:

Agriculture is a significant source of greenhouse gases, particularly methane from livestock

and nitrous oxide from fertilizers. These emissions contribute to global warming and climate
change.

• Water Consumption:

Agriculture consumes about 70% of the world's accessible freshwater, putting pressure on
water resources, especially in arid regions.

• Biodiversity Loss:

The expansion of agricultural lands and practices like monoculture have reduced the diversity
of plants, animals, and microorganisms.

Impacts on People

• Food Security and Livelihoods:

Agriculture is essential for providing food and is the primary livelihood for a large portion of
the world's population, particularly those living in poverty.

• Health Risks:

Exposure to agricultural pollutants, such as pesticides and contaminated water, can pose
significant risks to human health.

• Economic Impacts:

Resource depletion, soil degradation, and water scarcity can negatively impact agricultural
productivity, leading to economic challenges for farmers and communities.

• Water Conflicts:

Competition for water resources between agricultural needs and other sectors can lead to
conflicts over water use and sovereignty

Q.7:- CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION

Cause of Soil Erosion

Following are the important causes of soil erosion:

Rainfall and Flooding

Higher intensity of rainstorms is the main cause of soil erosion. Four types of soil erosion are
caused by rainfall:

Rill erosion

Gully erosion

Sheet erosion

Splash erosion

The raindrops disperse the soil, which is then washed away into the nearby streams and rivers.
Regions with very heavy and frequent rainfall face a large amount of soil loss. The flowing
water during floods also erodes a lot of soil by creating potholes, rock-cut basins, etc.

Agriculture

The farming practices are the major cause of soil erosion. The agricultural activities disturb
the ground. The trees are cleared and the land is ploughed to sow new seeds. Since most of
the crops are grown during the spring season, the land lies fallow during winters. Most of the
soil is eroded during winters.

Also, the tyres of tractors make grooves on the land, making a natural pathway for water. Fine
soil particles are eroded by wind.

Grazing

The grazing animals feed on the grasses and remove the vegetation from the land. Their
hooves churn up the soil. They also pull out plants by their roots. This loosens the soil and
makes it more prone to erosion.

Logging and Mining

A large number of trees are cut down to carry out the logging process. Trees hold the soil
firmly. The canopy of the trees protects the soil from heavy rainfall. The leaf litter that protects
the soil from erosion, is also lost during logging.

Mining activities also disturb the land and leave the soil more prone to erosion.

Construction

The construction of roads and buildings exposes the soil to erosion. The forests and grasslands
are cleared for construction purposes, which exposes the soil making it vulnerable to erosion.

Rivers and Streams

The flowing rivers and streams carry away the soil particles leading to a V-shaped erosion
activity.

Heavy Winds

During dry weather or in the semi-arid regions, the minute soil particles are carried away by
the wind to faraway lands. This degrades the soil and results in desertification.

Effects of Soil Erosion

The major effects of soil erosion include:

Loss of Arable Land

Soil erosion removes the top fertile layer of the soil. This layer is rich in the essential nutrients
required by the plants and the soil. The degraded soil does not support crop production and
leads to low crop productivity.

Clogging of Waterways

The agricultural soil contains pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and several other chemicals.
This pollutes the water bodies where the soil flows.

The sediments accumulate in the water and raise the water levels resulting in flooding.

Air Pollution

The dust particles merge in the air, resulting in air pollution. Some of the toxic substances such
as pesticides and petroleum can be extremely hazardous when inhaled. The dust plumes from
the arid and semi-arid regions cause widespread pollution when the winds move.

Desertification

Soil erosion is a major factor for desertification. It transforms the habitable regions into
deserts. Deforestation and destructive use of land worsens the situation. This also leads to
loss of biodiversity, degradation of the soil, and alteration in the ecosystem.

Destruction of Infrastructure

The accumulation of soil sediments in dams and along the banks can reduce their efficiency.
Thus, it affects infrastructural projects such as dams, embankments, and drainage.

Q.8:-SOILS FOR PLANT GROWTH

Soil is the foundation on which various plants such as shrubs, grass, vegetables, fruits, trees,
etc. grow. Soil not only holds the plants firmly on the ground, but also provides all the essential
nutrients to the plants to grow and thrive. The health of the plant is directly related to the
quality of the soil. Therefore, it is crucial and important to choose the right kind of soil for the
plants that you wish to grow.
Choosing the Best Soil for Your Plants

Here are some ways in which you choose the best soil for your plants:

1. According to the Plant

The kind of soil you pick for your plant should be in accordance with the plant you wish to
grow. For example, if you are planning on planting a vegetable garden then it is important that
the soil you choose is moist and loose, which will provide the flexibility to the roots to expand
and grow and get maximum nutrients from the soil.

2. According To Quality

Make sure you pay heed to the quality of the soil. The soil with too much clay or sand may not
be ideal for the plants to grow. It just has to the ideal mix of soils for the plants to grow
optimally. Make sure you identify the soil in your garden and then make alterations according
to the type of plants you wish to grow.

3. According To The Place Of Planting

The type of soil you choose for your plants will also depend on where you plan to grow the
plants. For example, big potted plants in your patio or large pots require more nutrient-rich
soil than the plants that are planted in your lawn. The potting soil contains special components
that prevent under-watering or over-watering in the plants. Make sure you invest in good
quality soil as sometimes the cheaper options may not be able to provide ample nutrients to
the soil.

4. Preparing The Soil

Once you have narrowed down on the soil according to the plant requirements, another
important step in the process is to prepare the soil. It is important to determine the kind of
soil that is available with you so that you can make required changes in it by adding organic
material and other additives to make it ideal for growing various kinds of plants.

Q.9:-TYPES OF SOIL

FOR MID EXAM DISCUSS ANY TWO

Following are various kinds of soil that you should select as your plant requirements:

1. Sandy Soil

This kind of soil requires mulching for holding moisture in it and requires various kinds of
organic blends to make it ideal for growing plants.

Features
This kind of soil usually gets washed away during heavy rains.

Often carry fewer nutrients for the plants because it warms up faster.

It is easier to cultivate this soil and it drains and dries out fast.

Suitable For

Vegetables such as potatoes, carrots, lettuce, zucchini, etc, blubs and shrubs such as Sun
roses, Tulips, Hibiscus, etc. Grow well in this soil.

2. Clay Soil

This kind of soil is loaded with nutrients and if the drainage is taken care of, this soil can offer
optimum benefits to the plants to grow.

Features

It is heavier to cultivate and gets warmed up slowly during the spring season.

This soil is poor at water-drainage and allows fewer air spaces.

This soil is hard and rocky when dry and gets sticky and lumpy when it is wet.

Suitable For

Ornamental plants and fruit trees usually grow well on this soil. Shrubs and perennials such
as Aster, Helen’s flower, Flowering quince, etc thrive on this soil.

3. Peaty Soil

This soil is acidic in nature and thus when it is combined with organic matter, lime and
compost; it offers umpteen benefits for the plants to grow.

Features

High amounts of peat lend spongy and damp qualities to this dark soil.

This soil offers fewer nutrients because the acidic nature of the soil slows the decomposition
process.

This soil heats up easily and can retain water.

Suitable For

Vegetable plants such as legumes, salad crops, root crops, etc, shrubs such as Witch hazel,
Lantern trees, Heather, etc.

4. Silty Soil
Organic matter is added to this soil to make it more fertile and for improving the drainage
capacity of the soil.

Features

This offers great benefits to the plants if the drainage system is channelized properly.

This soil is comparatively easier to cultivate.

It tends to hold moisture and has a soapy and soft texture to it.

Suitable For

Almost all kinds of fruits and vegetable crops can thrive on this soil is the drainage is proper.
Grasses, perennials, climbers, shrubs, etc grow well on this soil.

5. Loamy Soil

This soil is acidic in nature and thus requires regular mixing with organic matter. However, this
soil is the best soil for potted plants or garden plants.

Features

This soil is a mix of silt, clay, and sand.

This soil can be easily cultivated and warms up easily but does not become too dry during
summer months. This is an ideal soil for outdoor plants.

It is damp and fine-textured soil.

Suitable For

Almost all kinds of berry crops and vegetable crops grow in this soil. Bamboos, climbers,
perennials, tubers, and shrubs such as Dog’s tooth violets, Wisteria, Rubus, etc grow nicely in
this soil.

6. Chalky Soil

In order to improve and enhance the workability of this soil, hummus is added.

Features

This kind of soil in stonier and grainier than other soils.

This soil is usually found on a limestone or chalk bedrock.

The alkaline nature of this soil may sometimes lead to yellowish leaves or stunted growth of
the plants.

Suitable For
Vegetables such as cabbage, sweet corn, spinach, beets, etc, Blubs, trees, shrubs such as Pinks,
Lilac, Mock oranges, Weigala, Madonna Lillie, etc.

Q.10:- NUTRIENTS REQUIRED FOR GROWTH PLANT

Macro And Micro Nutrients For Plant Growth

Plants are able to produce their own food through a process called photosynthesis.
They absorb nutrients through their roots from the soil and is transported through the stem
to the different parts that are above ground level. They require two types of nutrients-
macronutrients and micronutrients.

Macro nutrients:

Plants are living organisms and they also require nutrients like us in order to survive, grow,
reproduce, and develop. Macronutrients in plants are nutrients that provide energy to the
plants and are required in larger amounts to maintain their development and growth. These
are the most important elements required for crops and examples include nitrogen (N),
potassium (K), calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), sulphur (S), oxygen (O), carbon
(C), and hydrogen (H). Out of these, the most important ones are nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium, which directly affect plant growth and actually create various parts of the plant.
Also, nitrogen is an important component of chlorophyll that plays a vital role in
photosynthesis (food synthesising process).

Micro nutrients in Plants

In addition to macronutrients, micronutrients are the other category of nutrients that are
called trace elements or minerals required in a very small quantity that help in growth or
metabolism. Some important micronutrients include boron (B), iron (Fe), chlorine (Cl),
manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), and nickel (Ni).

Now we will discuss about all macro and micro elements and their functions in detail further.

Role of Macro and Micronutrients

Macronutrients and micronutrients in plants fall under essential nutrients that support plants
for all biochemical needs and without which:

A plant can’t complete its life cycle.

Other elements can’t replace a specific function for a plant.

Plants cannot get full nutrition as each essential nutrient is directly involved in plant nutrition.

Out of all the essential nutrients, about half of the elements are considered as macronutrients
and functions of macronutrients are very necessary, for example, carbon is required to form
proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and other compounds or key plant macromolecules.
Macronutrients in Plants and Their Functions

The most important crop nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium that affect plant
growth directly and create various parts of plants.

Nitrogen

It is important to plants for:

Metabolism as it is an important substance and part of amino acids, proteins, and enzymes.

Influences germination and vegetative growth.

Being a component of chlorophyll, it plays an important role in photosynthesis.

Responsible for the rapid growth of foliage.

Provides green colour to the plants.

Deficiency of iron in plants results in stunted crop growth, chlorosis or yellowing of leaves,
and weakness during fruiting and flowering, leading to lower yields.

Too much nitrogen is also not good for plants as it causes dark green colouring of leaves, lush
growth, crop lodging, and fruit quality reduction.

Phosphorus

It is important to plants for:

Development of roots.

Maintaining a good quality of flowering, fruiting, and seed production.

Storing and transporting energy. Resistance to disease.

Deficiency of phosphorus leads to stunted plant growth, weakened roots, thin shoots, and
dark green/purple/red leaves. Excessive amounts of phosphorus can cause lower reception
and deficiency of other elements like Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, and B.

Potassium (K)

It is important to plants for:

Influencing water uptake.

Improving drought tolerance.

Improvement in cold hardiness.

Providing resistance to fungal diseases and insect pests.

Synthesizing proteins, sugar, and fat.

Deficiency of potassium in plants leads to growth reduction, burning or yellowing of the leaf
margins, and dead spots on older leaves. Excess amounts are also not so beneficial as they
affect the uptake of other nutrients including magnesium, calcium, and nitrogen.

Micronutrients in Plants and Their Functions

Boron, iron, manganese, and zinc are the most important micronutrients in a plant organism.
Let’s find out :

Boron

It is important for:

Sugar transport.

Amino acid production.

Cell wall formation.

Crop reproduction.

Fruiting.

Flowering.

Improvement of crop quality.

Boron deficiency in plants can show various symptoms that include stunted growth of young
crops, deformation of leaves, death of growing points, dark brown lesions on leaves, poor
flowering, and chlorosis or yellowing of leaves. It should be ensured that boron application
should be before the flowering stage in crops, applying later is not beneficial.

Iron (Fe)

Iron is important for:

Chlorophyll production.

Photosynthesis.

Enzyme composition.

Influences energy transfer, nitrogen reduction, and fixation.

Lignin formation.

Deficiency in iron in plants harms younger leaves as it causes yellowing between the veins.

Manganese (Mn)

It is important to plants for:

Influences chloroplast production.

Actively participating in photosynthetic process.

Activation of enzymes and influencing germination plus crop maturity.

Deficiency in Mn also may lead to yellowing of veins in the younger leaves called chlorosis.

Zinc

It is important to plants for:

Early growth stages.

Development of root, seed, and fruit.

In the process of photosynthesis.

Balancing plant hormones.

Activity of auxins.

Deficiency of Zinc results in stunted growth, length reduction of internodes, smaller young
leaves, and yellowing on the lower leaves.

Q.11:- REDUCE SOIL EROSION (OR)MANAGEMENT OF SOIL EROSION:

Soil Erosion Prevention

Soil erosion is a serious environmental issue. Steps should be taken to curb this problem.

Following are some of the methods of soil erosion prevention:

Plant trees on barren lands to limit erosion of soil.

Add mulch and rocks to prevent the plants and grass underneath to prevent soil erosion.

Mulch matting can be used to reduce erosion on slopes.

Put a series of fibre logs to prevent any water or soil from washing away.

A wall at the base of the slope can help in preventing the soil from eroding.

Every household should have a proper drainage system so that water flows down into proper
water collecting systems.

Key Points of Soil Erosion

It is the natural process of wearing away topsoil, but human activities have accelerated the
process.

It is usually caused due to the removal of vegetation, or any activity that renders the ground
dry.
Farming, grazing, mining, construction and recreational activities are some of the causes of
soil erosion.

The effects of soil erosion are not just land degradation. It has led to a drastic increase in
pollution and sedimentation in rivers that clogs the water bodies resulting in a decline in the
population of aquatic organisms.

Degraded lands lose the water holding capacity resulting in floods.

Q.12:-TYPES OF AGRICULTURE
There are several steps of agriculture practices that eased farming methods and improved
their productivity. Following are the world’s most adapted types of agricultural practices that
vary from region to region. However, these types of farming practices changed the perspective
of global farming.

Agriculture is a science which deals with crop cultivation and animal rearing for socio-
economic benefits. It is an ancient practice that is used to produce food, fiber, and other
necessary products and to earn a livelihood. Agriculture has played a significant role in human
civilization and referred to as the basics of revolution.

To support the population in cities, plants and animal domestication were further transformed
into several types of agricultural practices.

Being the most widely adapted profession in the world, every region has its own native crops,
cropping methods, technical approaches, and types of animals.

There are 11 Types of Agricultural Practices

➢ Pastoral Farming

➢ Arable Farming

➢ Shifting Agriculture

➢ Mixed Farming

➢ Nomadic Agriculture

➢ Sedentary Agriculture

➢ Subsistence Farming

➢ Commercial Agriculture

➢ Intensive Farming

➢ Extensive Farming

➢ Crop Rotation
 ➢ Plantation Agriculture

Pastoral Farming:

Pastoral farming one of the most ancient types of farming practices. Pastoral farming is the
animal raising practice only exhibits in cold and humid environments, which are not ideal for
crop cultivation. These steep slopes are less nutritive and structured to support the growth of
plants and the use of mechanization. These lands are generally suitable for grasses and weeds.

The probability of crop damage is higher in slopy areas because of the strong winds and high-
water flow during rainfalls. Slopy areas are more favorable for the rearing of sheep not for
dairy animals. Sheep can feed on grasses and can easily adapt to cold and humid
environments.

Advantages of Pastoral Farming

▪ Can be practiced in dry regions

▪ Less burden on ground-water

▪ Increase carbon sequestration

▪ Animal manure is used as fertilizer

Disadvantages of Pastoral Farming

▪ Need to sell animals for food

▪ Less finical insurance

▪ Land erosion due to overgrazing

▪ Pandemics can kill animals

Arable Farming:
Arable farming only involves the cultivation of crops. It does not involve the rearing of
animals. Major purpose of arable farming is the cultivation of food crops to fulfill human
needs. It can be performed on small scale, commercial, or on large agricultural farms.

This farming practice is mainly used to fulfill the rising demand for food and a healthy lifestyle.
It mainly involves the cultivation of annual crops e.g., vegetables, grains, legumes, and
potatoes.

Advantages of Arable Farming

More cultivated land

Increased productivity

Increase product diversity

Disadvantages of Arable Farming

Expensive mechanical cost

Depletion of soil fertility

High crop maintenance cost, weed, and pest control.

Shifting Agriculture

Shifting agriculture involves the cultivation of crops on forest lands after clearing or burning
the forest in the tropics. Native people practice farming on forest land until land loses its
fertility. It generally takes three to five years for the land to lose its fertility or to grow
overtaken by native flora.
Once the land loses its fertility, farmers move to the next forest and repeat the process in the
coming years. This farming is mainly adopted in the tropics for the purpose of producing
grains.

However, this type of activity is highly unfavorable for a sustainable environment, therefore
environmentalists are strongly against its practice. Apart from other types of agricultural
practices,

Advantages of Shifting Agriculture

No need to apply fertilizer

Best practice to regain fertility

Reduce pest infestation

Burning proves effective weed and disease control

Disadvantages of Shifting Agriculture

Low yield

Reduce forest area

Shift land, again and again, makes it tedious.

No land ownership

Mixed Farming

Mixed farming is one of the most adapted types of farming practices. It is a practice that
involves the cultivation and rearing of plants and animals at the same time. This mainly
practiced in humid regions and is widely adopted in Europe.
It is a continuous type of cropping practice that involves growing of a variety of crops varying
in their maturity period and sowing methods. Proper irrigation facilities and optimum rainfall
are very essential for the success of this farming system.

Advantages of Mixed Farming

Continuous production

Increase per capita profit

Reduce external dependency

Animal waste is used as manure, reduces fertilizer cost

Enhance biodiversity

Disadvantages of Mixed Farming

Due to multiple farming, maintenance becomes difficult

High knowledge is necessary

Doubles the stress factors

Nomadic Agriculture

Among all types of agricultural practices, nomadic agriculture is a type of practice in which
native people graze their animals on natural pastures. Nomads keep migrating with their
animals in search of food, water, and pastures. This agricultural practice is mainly done in arid
and semiarid areas of the world.
Animals like goats, sheep, camel, cattle, horses, and donkeys are common in nomadic herds.

Advantages of Nomadic Agriculture

Easy migration

Large population groups move together

Specialized workers

Reliable food supply

Disadvantages of Nomadic Agriculture

Unstable food supply

High risk of disease and stress factors due to large gathering groups

The danger of hunters and robbers

Sedentary Agriculture

Sedentary agriculture is commonly practiced in the tropics, and it is a consistent type of

farming that is repeated again and again on the same piece of land. Once the land loses its
fertility, the land is left uncultivated for some years so it can regain its fertility.

In sedentary agriculture, commonly cultivated crops involve tree plants and grains.
Advantages of Sedentary Agriculture

Low labor cost

Low fuel cost

Less soil erosion

Disadvantages of Sedentary Agriculture

Land loses its fertility

High risk of disease and pest resilience

Subsistence Farming

Among several types of farming practices, this type focuses exclusively on the farmer and his
family’s needs. In this agricultural practice cultivation of crops and

rearing of animals is usually limited to small scale, low input, and consistent yield. The old and
tractional cropping methods are used in this practice.

Due to small-scale farming, it is mainly adopted by the poor farmers which cannot afford the
latest technologies and agricultural inputs, resulting in low yield. Therefore, the actual output
remains limited to farmer’s families.

Advantages of Subsistence Farming

Cheap and cost-efficient

Employment source

Fulfill farmer own needs

Disadvantages of Subsistence Farming

Insufficient yield
Less crop diversity

Single-family produce

Depends on natural soil fertility

Severe effects of changing climate

Commercial Agriculture

Commercial agriculture is a practice in which commercial crops and trees are grown for
commercial purposes. It is also known as industrialized agriculture.

Commercial agriculture mainly needs large landscapes to produce high quality and quantity
crops and trees. However, farmers are practicing it on small scale because of its high
commercial value. Major commercial crops are tea, coffee, rubber, coconut, grapes, mangoes,
apples, avocado, and palm-oil.

Commercial Agriculture Types of Agricultural Practices

The plantation cost of these crops is usually high because the majority of commercial crops
are tree crops.

Advantages of Commercial Agriculture

Improve Infrastructure

Low price of product

Enhanced food security

Production of raw material

Low production cost

Disadvantages of Commercial Agriculture

Destroy natural forests

Reduction in crop farmlands, due to the high interest of farmer in commercial agriculture

Promote the high use of fertilizers

Increases land rates

Intensive Farming

Among types of agricultural practices, Intensive farming is a major practice in high rainfall and
tropical regions having a diverse plant population. This farming is commonly done on large
scale and it also shares the national economy.

Rice is one of the examples of intensive crops that are intensively cultivated in several regions
of the world. It is a dual-purpose crop that is domesticated for food and export purposes.
Farmers also plant several other intensive grain crops in these areas which are also high
yielding.

Intensive Farming Types of Agricultural Practices

Intensive farming is a widespread practice in the world including Central America, south and
north Africa, Asia and several regions of the Middle East.

Advantages of Intensive Farming

High yield

Easy farm supervision

More economical

Highly environment protective

Disadvantages of Intensive Farming

Increase the use of fertilizer and chemical use

Poor conditions for livestock

Destruction of forest

Contaminated fruits, vegetables, and farm produce

Extensive Farming

This farming practice involves the rearing of cattle and sheep in low productive agricultural
zones, mainly used to cultivate wheat, oil and grain crops, and barley. It is commonly practiced
in the USA, Argentina, Peru.

Extensive Farming Types of Agricultural Practices

This farming practice needs fewer fertilizers and artificial supplements which make it a more
environment-friendly practice. However, the actual yield is less than the current global
demand which makes it less popular among farmers and agriculturists.

Advantages of Extensive Farming

Less use of pesticide

Less deforestation

No loss of biodiversity

Disadvantages of Extensive Farming

Low yield

Less income

Insufficient food
Crop Rotation

Crop rotation is one of the types of agricultural practices that involves the rotation of
cultivational crops in the same land during different growing seasons. This practice assists the
soil in regaining its fertility and lost nutrients during an earlier crop harvest.

It also reduces the incidence of environmental factors and their effects on crop productivity
and resistance to stress factors.

A usual example of crop rotation is wheat – turnip – barely – clover – corn silage.

Advantages of Crop Rotation

Improve soil fertility

High yield

Enhance soil nutrients

Less soil erosion

Reduce pest, weed, and disease infestation

Improve soil structure

Improve microbial activity

Disadvantages of Crop Rotation

Diverse crop growing conditions

More skillful

Necessary crop diversification Low financial returns

Unit -1
Q.13:-ENERGY DEMAND
ENERGY DEMAND

Energy demand is the term used to describe the consumption of energy by

human activity. It drives the whole energy system, influencing the total amount of energy
used; the location of, and types of fuel used in the energy supply system; and the
characteristics of the end use technologies that consume energy.

A good understanding of energy demand of different sectors is an important

component for energy planning and policy of a country. Energy demand depends on different
socioeconomic factors such as population, urbanization, industrialization, net capital income
and development of technologies, etc. Before forecasting of future energy demand, the
policymakers need a complete knowledge about the growth and pattern of energy demand
of different sectors, which required energy demand analysis. In this chapter, the energy
demand calculation methods of different sectors are acquainted. This chapter begins with the
discussion of several sorts of energy demands and their nature, followed by classification of
different energy demand sectors. Major three energy demand sectors such as (i) building
(residential and commercial) sector, (ii) industrial sector, and (iii) transportation sector are
discussed in details. Finally, procedures of energy demand calculation of different components
of each sector have been described with the mathematical expressions.

Q.14:-CONSERVATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY RESOURCES

Energy conservation is the decision and practice of using less energy. Turning off the light
when you leave the room, unplugging appliances when they’re not in use and walking instead
of driving are all examples of energy conservation. The two main reasons people conserve
energy are to gain more control over their energy bill and reduce the demand on the earth’s
natural resources.

MANAGEMENT OF ENERGY RESOURCES

1. Turn your refrigerator down. Refrigerators account for as much as 13.7% of the total
household energy use. To increase energy savings, set your fridge to 37 degrees Fahrenheit
and your freezer to 3 degrees Fahrenheit.

2. Use energy-efficient light bulbs. Install energy-saving CFL or LED bulbs in your lighting
fixtures to use 25-35 percent less energy, compared to regular incandescent bulbs.

3. Clean or replace air filters as recommended. The air conditioner and heater are the biggest
energy users in most homes, and these appliances have to work even harder with dirty air
filters. Write the date of installation on the filter to help you remember when it needs to be
replaced.

4. Do full loads. Make sure your dishwasher and washing machine are full before running them
to get the most energy-saving use from each run cycle.

5. Use smart power strips. Even when not in use, household electronics still draw power from
outlets. This phenomenon is called “phantom load”. Energy-saving smart power strips, which
shut down appliances that have gone into standby mode, help you cut down on phantom-
load costs, potentially resulting in money and energy savings.

6. Air-dry dishes and clothes. Instead of using your dishwasher’s drying feature, consider
letting the dishes air-dry. And instead of using the dryer on a nice day, hang your clothes
outside to dry.

7. Bake with glass or ceramic pans. You can set the oven’s temperature 25 degrees lower than
indicated in the recipe when you do this.

8. Cook using the right-sized burner. Conserve energy by using your stove’s small burners for
small pots and large burners for large pots.

9. Cut down on air leaks in your home. You’re paying for warm air in the winter and cool air in
the summer — don’t let that money escape! Check your windows and doors for cracks and
gaps, and seal them up with new weather stripping or caulk.

10. Keep your house a little hotter in the summer and a little cooler in the winter. Opt for
wearing lighter clothes in the summer and wearing a few extra layers in the winter in exchange
for those few degrees’ change in temperature. A good rule of thumb is to set the thermostat
to 680 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter and to 780 in the summer.

OIL POLLUTION

Oil pollution does come from oil spills from large tankers, but there are other sources of oil
pollution that, collectively, discharge more oil into water than the major oil spills do.

Oil spills can be defined as the release of liquid raw/natural petroleum hydrocarbons into the
environment, especially into the sea.

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially
the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually
given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may
also occur on land. Oil spills may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore
platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as
gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel,
or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.
Because oil spills are localized, they can severely contaminate beaches and sediment, and
cause serious harm to marine wildlife. Oil spills can suffocate fish, get caught in the feathers
of birds and mammals and block light from photosynthetic plants in the water.

Q.15 CASE STUDY

Q.16:- IMPACT OF OIL POLLUTION ON MARINE SYSTEM AND COASTAL
ECOSYSTEM
Due to the deposition of excess crude oil products into the water bodies causes huge threat
to the marine living beings. When water bodies exposed to oil, adult fish may experience
reduced growth, enlarged livers, changes in heart and respiration rates, fin erosion, and
reproduction impairment. Fish eggs and larvae can be especially sensitive to lethal and sub
lethal impacts.

Water mammals can also become trapped in oil and mistake it for food. Dolphins and
whales can inhale oil, which can affect lungs, immune function and reproduction. Many birds
and animals also ingest oil when they try to clean themselves, which can poison them.

There are different types water mammals like fishes, crabs, prawns, etc., these are
very important for the improvement of financial conditions of our country. This helps our
country get more exports and imports to great extent. These can give more benefits to human
beings.

If these kind of marine bodies are affected by the oils produced from the oils spills it
causes great threat like respiratory problems to the marine creatures and other unhygienic
situations faced by them. Due to these pollution there are plenty of medical plants get spoils
and cause great loss to human beings.

Oxygen content present in the water has gradually reduces and large amount of sea
animals gets suffocated and some of them may die.

As per the data humans consuming more marine foods than vegetarian In the financial
point of view these kind of effected marine animals are exported to other countries then the
humans who are consuming these marine food their health also will effected to some extent.

IMPACT OF OIL POLLUTION ON COSTAL ECOSYSTEM

Oil pollution can have a devastating effect on the water environment, it spreads over
the surface in a thin layer that stops oxygen getting to the plants and animals that live in the
water. Oil pollution: harms animals and insects. prevents photosynthesis in plants.

These oil pollution causes greatest harm to the living organisms present in environment. There
are some impacts of oil pollution on ecosystem
 ⮚ Due to the oils dispense on lakes and oceans and seas mostly living organisms under
water gets most effected and maily cause water pollution

⮚ Contaminated water by the oil can also damage the soil structure and reduces the
bearing capacity and also reduces the fertility to plant growth.

⮚ Due to the water pollution by oils spills compound present in the oils are penetrate
deeply in to the soils crest and decomposes the rock bed.\

⮚ Due to these the sea food depended animals like flying mammals are highly effect and
they finally lead to endangered.

⮚ Due to the oils soils get polluted and increases global warming and also causes air
pollution

⮚ Lot of climatic changes are happened due to these pollution like acid rains draughts
etc., mainly effects human health

Q.17:-DIFFERENET WAYS OF GENERATATION OF ELECTRICITY

The most popular renewable energy sources currently are:

1. Solar energy

2. Wind energy

3. Hydro energy

4. Tidal energy

5. Geothermal energy

6. Biomass energy

How these types of renewable energy work

1) Solar energy
Sunlight is one of our planet’s most abundant and freely available energy resources. The
amount of solar energy that reaches the earth’s surface in one hour is more than the planet’s
total energy requirements for a whole year. Although it sounds like a perfect renewable energy
source, the amount of solar energy we can use varies according to the time of day and the
season of the year as well as geographical location. In the UK, solar energy is an increasingly
popular way to supplement your energy usage.

2) Wind energy

Wind is a plentiful source of clean energy. Wind farms are an increasingly familiar sight in the
UK with wind power making an ever-increasing contribution to the National Grid. To harness
electricity from wind energy, turbines are used to drive generators which then feed electricity
into the National Grid. Although domestic or ‘off-grid’ generation systems are available, not
every property is suitable for a domestic wind turbine. Find out more about wind energy on
our wind power page.

3) Hydro energy
As a renewable energy resource, hydro power is one of the most commercially developed. By
building a dam or barrier, a large reservoir can be used to create a controlled flow of water
that will drive a turbine, generating electricity. This energy source can often be more reliable
than solar or wind power (especially if it's tidal rather than river) and also allows electricity to
be stored for use when demand reaches a peak. Like wind energy, in certain situations hydro
can be more viable as a commercial energy source (dependant on type and compared to other
sources of energy) but depending very much on the type of property, it can be used for
domestic, ‘off-grid’ generation. Find out more by visiting our hydro power page.

4) Tidal energy

This is another form of hydro energy that uses twice-daily tidal currents to drive turbine
generators. Although tidal flow unlike some other hydro energy sources isn’t constant, it is
highly predictable and can therefore compensate for the periods when the tide current is low.
Find out more by visiting our marine energy page.

5) Geothermal energy

By harnessing the natural heat below the earth’s surface, geothermal energy can be used to
heat homes directly or to generate electricity. Although it harnesses a power directly below
our feet, geothermal energy is of negligible importance in the UK compared to countries such
as Iceland, where geothermal heat is much more freely available.
6) Biomass Energy

This is the conversion of solid fuel made from plant materials into electricity. Although
fundamentally, biomass involves burning organic materials to produce electricity, and
nowadays this is a much cleaner, more energy-efficient process. By converting agricultural,
industrial and domestic waste into solid, liquid and gas fuel, biomass generates power at a
much lower economic and environmental cost.

Q.18:- MANAGEMENT OF OIL POLLUTION

MANAGEMENT OF OIL POLLUTION

The first step to tackle the oil spill is to prevent the oil spill from taking place. This typically
involves training the teams and following standard practices while bringing the ships to the
port, passing through narrow channels, and staying on the prescribed path for the journey. In
case of any spill, there are different solutions based on the quantum of the spill and location
of the spill. Below are the methods of cleaning the sea after an oil spill takes place:

Oil booms:

Oil booms are the most common and popular equipment used in oil clean-up due to their
simpler design and easier execution. These are also known as containment booms that
enclose the oil to a smaller area and prevents it from spreading further.

This method is employed when the area of the spill is comparatively smaller.

It is used where the containment booms are locally available; if the boom is to be transported
from a faraway site, the spill can expand to a larger area and become difficult to manage.

It is used in the water where wave velocity is constant as the fluctuating tide makes it difficult
for an oil boom to perform the clean-up operation properly.
Skimmers:

Once the oil is bounded by oil booms, it can be extracted or skimmed easily with the help of
skimmers or oil scoops. These skimmers are fitted onto boats to remove the floating oil or
greasy contaminants.

It is an economical method of oil clean-up as the equipment used for skimming oil is relatively
cheaper.

A major loophole in the use of skimmer in oil decantation is that if debris is present in the
confined region, it can choke or clog the skimmer easily.

Sorbents:

Materials that can adsorb or absorb liquids are termed as sorbents. The use of sorbents is a
natural process of oil clean-up. The most common types of sorbents are peat moss,
vermiculite (straw), and hay. Some other features of sorbents are listed as follows:

These materials result in the least wastage and prevent the progression of pollution.

They are useful for small spills with the highest efficiency. They are also used to remove small
tints of large spill clean-ups. There is also a difficulty in working with sorbents as sorbents
become denser than water after absorbing oil and may possibly sink to the bottom of the sea.

Burning:

It is similar to burning rice husk after yielding rice crop. In this method, the floating oil is set
to fire by igniting it safely. It is the most proficient method of oil clean-up, as it can efficiently
remove 98% of the total spilled oil.

Dispersants:

When oil cannot be confined to booms, the last option that remains is oil disintegration.
Dispersals are chemicals spread over the spilled oil to initiate the disintegration of oil. After
disintegration, the surface area of oil molecules increases and it becomes easier for them to
form a bond with water. This process takes the bonded molecules deeper in water and makes
them available for microbes, which degrade them later on. Some other methods employed
for safer oil spill clean-ups from the sea are hot water washing or washing with high-pressure
water; manual labor; and bioremediation and natural recovery.

Q.19:- MANAGEMENT OF ENERGY RESOURCES

MANAGEMENT OF ENERGY RESOURCES

1. Turn your refrigerator down. Refrigerators account for as much as 13.7% of the total
household energy use. To increase energy savings, set your fridge to 37 degrees Fahrenheit
and your freezer to 3 degrees Fahrenheit.
2. Use energy-efficient light bulbs. Install energy-saving CFL or LED bulbs in your lighting
fixtures to use 25-35 percent less energy, compared to regular incandescent bulbs.

3. Clean or replace air filters as recommended. The air conditioner and heater are the biggest
energy users in most homes, and these appliances have to work even harder with dirty air
filters. Write the date of installation on the filter to help you remember when it needs to be
replaced.

4. Do full loads. Make sure your dishwasher and washing machine are full before running them
to get the most energy-saving use from each run cycle.

5. Use smart power strips. Even when not in use, household electronics still draw power from
outlets. This phenomenon is called “phantom load”. Energy-saving smart power strips, which
shut down appliances that have gone into standby mode, help you cut down on phantom-
load costs, potentially resulting in money and energy savings.

6. Air-dry dishes and clothes. Instead of using your dishwasher’s drying feature, consider
letting the dishes air-dry. And instead of using the dryer on a nice day, hang your clothes
outside to dry.

7. Bake with glass or ceramic pans. You can set the oven’s temperature 25 degrees lower than
indicated in the recipe when you do this.

8. Cook using the right-sized burner. Conserve energy by using your stove’s small burners for
small pots and large burners for large pots.

9. Cut down on air leaks in your home. You’re paying for warm air in the winter and cool air in
the summer — don’t let that money escape! Check your windows and doors for cracks and
gaps, and seal them up with new weather stripping or caulk.

10. Keep your house a little hotter in the summer and a little cooler in the winter. Opt for
wearing lighter clothes in the summer and wearing a few extra layers in the winter in exchange
for those few degrees’ change in temperature. A good rule of thumb is to set the thermostat
to 680 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter and to 780 in the summer.