Group 1 report

Biogeochemical cycle

A commonly cited example is the water cycle.

In ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or nutrient cycle is a pathway by which a
chemical element or molecule moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth. In effect, the element is recycled,
although in some cycles there may be places (called reservoirs) where the element is
accumulated or held for a long period of time (such as an ocean or lake for water). Water, for
example, is always recycled through the water cycle, as shown in the diagram. The water
undergoes evaporation, condensation, and precipitation, falling back to Earth clean and fresh.
Elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to
another and from one part of the biosphere to another through the biogeochemical cycles.[1][2]

Biogeochemical cycles
We have adopted a model of the Earth System as a set of interacting “spheres”, the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere. Being open systems, energy and mass are constantly
cycled between them. The transport and transformation of substances through the Earth system
are known collectively as biogeochemical cycles. These include the hydrologic (water),
nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen cycles.

Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen comprises 78.08 % of the atmosphere making it the largest constituent of the gaseous
envelope that surrounds the Earth. Nitrogen is important in the make up of organic molecules
like proteins. Unfortunately, nitrogen is inaccessible to most living organisms. Nitrogen must be
“fixed” by soil bacteria living in association with the roots of particular plant like legumes,
clover, alfalfa, soybeans, peas, peanuts, and beans. Living on nodules around the roots of
legumes, the bacteria chemically combine nitrogen in the air to form nitrates (NO3) and ammonia
(NH3) making it available to plants. Organisms that feed on the plants ingest the nitrogen and
release it in organic wastes. Denitrifying bacteria frees the nitrogen from the wastes returning it
to the atmosphere.

Oxygen Cycle
Oxygen is the second most abundant gas in Earth’s atmosphere and an essential element of most
organic molecules. Though oxygen is passed between the the lithosphere, biosphere and
atmosphere in a variety of ways, photosynthesizing vegetation is largely responsible for oxygen
found in the atmosphere. The cycling of oxygen through the Earth system is also accomplished
by weathering of carbonate rock. Some atmospheric oxygen is bound to water molecules from
plant transpiration and evaporation. Oxygen is also bound to carbon dioxide and released into the
atmosphere during animal respiration.

Description
The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as water
vapor into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor. Evapotranspiration is
water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. Rising air currents take the vapor up
into the atmosphere where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents
move water vapor around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as
precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, and can accumulate as ice caps and
glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snowpacks can thaw and melt, and
the melted water flows over land as snowmelt. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land
as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers
in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and
groundwater are stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks
into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes
aquifers, which store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land
surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge.
Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. Over
time, the water returns to the ocean, where our water cycle started.

[edit] Different Processes

Precipitation

Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface . Most precipitation occurs as rain, but
also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet.[1] Approximately 505,000 km3
(121,000 cu mi) of water fall as precipitation each year, 398,000 km 3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the
oceans.[2]

Canopy interception

The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage and eventually evaporates back to the
atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.

Snowmelt

The runoff produced by melting snow.

Runoff

The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and
channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become
stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.

Infiltration

The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes
soil moisture or groundwater.[3]

Subsurface Flow

The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return
to the surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water
 returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity
or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is replenished slowly, so it
can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.

Evaporation

The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of
water into the overlying atmosphere.[4] The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar
radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they
are specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual evapotranspiration amounts to
approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water, 434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which
evaporates from the oceans.[2]

Sublimation

The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor. [5]

Advection

The movement of water — in solid, liquid, or vapor states — through the atmosphere. Without
advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land. [6]

Condensation

The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.[7]

Transpiration

The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a gas that cannot

Effects on climate
The water cycle is powered from solar energy. 86% of the global evaporation occurs from the
oceans, reducing their temperature by evaporative cooling. Without the cooling, the effect of
evaporation on the greenhouse effect would lead to a much higher surface temperature of 67 °C
(153 °F), and a warmer planet.[13]

Aquifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water increases the total amount of
water in the hydrosphere[14] that is subject to transpiration and evaporation thereby causing
accretion in water vapour and cloud cover which are the primary absorbers of infrared radiation
in the earth's atmosphere. Adding water to the system has a forcing effect on the whole earth
system, an accurate estimate of which hydrogeological fact is yet to be quantified.

δ34S
Sulfur naturally has 25 different isotopes, only four of which are stable. Of those four, two (32S,
light and 34S, heavy) make up the majority (99.22%) of S on Earth. The vast majority (95.02%)
of S is found as 32S with only 4.21% in 34S. The ratio of these two isotopes is fixed in our solar
system and has been since its formation. The bulk Earth sulfur isotopic ratio is thought to be the
same as the ratio of 22.22 measured from the Canyon Diablo troilite (CDT), a meteorite found in
Arizona.[11] That ratio is accepted as the international standard and is therefore set at δ0.00.
Deviation away from the 0.00 number is expresses as the δ34S which is a ratio in per mill (‰).
Positive values correlating to a great amount of 34S and more negative values correlating with
greater 32S in a rock or mineral.

Formation of sulfur minerals through non-biogenic processes does not substantially differentiate
between the light and heavy isotopes, therefore sulfur values in gypsum or baryte should be the
same as the overall ratio in the water column at their time of precipitation. Sulfate reduction
through biologic activity strongly differentiates between the two isotopes because of the more
rapid enzymic reaction with 32S.[12] Sulfate metabolism results in an isotopic depletion of -18‰,
and repeated cycles of oxidation and reduction can result in values up to -50 ‰. Average present
day seawater values of δ34S are on the order of +21‰.

Throughout geologic history the sulfur cycle and the isotopic ratios have coevolved with the
biosphere becoming overall more negative with the increases in biologically driven sulfate
reduction, but also show substantial positive excursion. In general positive excursions in the
sulfur isotopes mean that there is an excess of pyrite deposition rather than oxidation of sulfide
minerals exposed on land.[13]

[edit] Evolution of the sulfur cycle though time

The isotopic composition of sedimentary sulfides provides primary information on the evolution
of the sulfur cycle. The total inventory of sulfur compounds on the surface of the Earth (nearly
1022g S) represents the total outgassing of sulfur through geologic time.[14] Rocks analyzed for
sulfur content are generally organic-rich shales meaning they are likely controlled by biogenic
sulfur reduction. Average seawater curves are generated from evaporites deposited throughout
geologic time because again, since they do not discriminate between the heavy and light sulfur
isotopes they should mimic the ocean composition at the time of deposition.

4.6 billion years ago (Ga) the Earth formed and had a theoretical δ34S value of 0. Since there was
no biologic activity on early Earth there would be no isotopic fractionation. All sulfur in the
atmosphere would be released during volcanic eruptions. When the oceans condensed on Earth,
the atmosphere was essentially swept clean of sulfur gases, owing to their high solubility in
water. Throughout the majority of the Archean (4.6–2.5 Ga) most systems appeared to be
sulfate-limited. Some small Archean evaporite deposits require that at least locally elevated
concentrations (possibly due to local volcanic activity) of sulfate existed in order for them to be
supersaturated and precipitate out of solution.[15]

3.8–3.6 Ga marks the beginning of the exposed geologic record because this is the age of the
oldest rocks on Earth. Metasedimentary rocks from this time still have an isotopic value of 0
because the biosphere was not developed enough (possibly at all) to fractionate sulfur.[16]
3.5 Ga anoxyogenic photosynthesis is established and provides a weak source of sulfate to the
global ocean with sulfate concentrations incredibly low the δ34S is still basically 0.[17] Shortly
after, at 3.4 Ga the first evidence for minimal fractionation in evaporitic sulfate in association
with magmatically derived sulfides can be seen in the rock record. This fractionation shows
possible evidence for anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria.

2.8 Ga marks the first evidence for oxygen production through photosynthesis. This is important
because there cannot be sulfur oxidation without oxygen in the atmosphere. This exemplifies the
coevolution of the oxygen and sulfur cycles as well as the biosphere.

2.7–2.5 Ga is the age of the oldest sedimentary rocks to have a depleted δ 34S which provide the
first compelling evidence for sulfate reduction.[18]

2.3 Ga sulfate increases to more than 1 mM; this increase in sulfate is coincident with the “Great
Oxygenation Event", when redox conditions on Earth’s surface are thought by most workers to
have shifted fundamentally from reducing to oxidizing.[19] This shift would have led to an
incredible increase in sulfate weathering which would have led to an increase in sulfate in the
oceans. The large isotopic fractionations that would likely be associated with bacteria reduction
are produced for the first time. Although there was a distinct rise in seawater sulfate at this time
it was likely still only less than 5–15% of present-day levels.[20]

At 1.8 Ga, Banded iron formations (BIF) are common sedimentary rocks throughout the Archean
and Paleoproterozoic; their disappearance marks a distinct shift in the chemistry of ocean water.
BIFs have alternating layers of iron oxides and chert. BIFs only form if the water is be allowed
to supersaturate in dissolved iron (Fe2+) meaning there cannot be free oxygen or sulfur in the
water column because it would form Fe3+ (rust) or pyrite and precipitate out of solution.
Following this supersaturation, the water must become oxygenated in order for the ferric rich
bands to precipitate it must still be sulfur poor otherwise pyrite would form instead of Fe3+. It has
been hypothesized that BIFs formed during to the initial evolution of photosynthetic organisms
that had phases of population growth, causing over production of oxygen. Due to this over
production they would poison themselves causing a mass die off, which would cut off the source
of oxygen and produce a large amount of CO2 through the decomposition of their bodies,
allowing for another bacterial bloom. After 1.8 Ga sulfate concentrations were sufficient to
increase rates of sulfate reduction to greater than the delivery flux of iron to the oceans.[21]

Along with the disappearance of BIF, the end of the Paleoproterozoic also marks the first large
scale sedimentary exhalative deposits showing a link between mineralization and a likely
increase in the amount of sulfate in sea water. In the Paleoproterozoic the sulfate in seawater had
increased to an amount greater than in the Archean, but was still lower then present day values.
[22]
The sulfate levels in the Proterozoic also act as proxies for atmospheric oxygen because
sulfate is produced mostly through weathering of the continents in the presence of oxygen. The
low levels in the Proterozoic simply imply that levels of atmospheric oxygen fell between the
abundances of the Phanerozoic and the deficiencies of the Archean.

750 million years ago (Ma) there is a renewed deposition of BIF which marks a significant
change in ocean chemistry. This was likely due to snowball earth episodes where the entire globe
including the oceans was covered in a layer of ice cutting off oxygenation.[23] In the late
Neoproterozoic high carbon burial rates increased the atmospheric oxygen level to >10% of its
present day value. In the Latest Neoproterozoic another major oxidizing event occurred on
Earth’s surface that resulted in an oxic deep ocean and possibly allowed for the appearance of
multicellular life.[24]

During the last 600 million years, seawater SO4 has varied between +10 and +30‰ in δ34S, with
an average value close to that of today. This coincides with atmospheric O levels reaching
something close to modern values around the Precambrian–Cambrian boundary.

Over a shorter time scale (10 million years) changes in the sulfur cycle are easier to observe and
can be even better constrained with oxygen isotopes. Oxygen is continually incorporated into the
sulfur cycle through sulfate oxidation and then released when that sulfate is reduced once again.
[25]
Since different sulfate sources within the ocean have distinct oxygen isotopic values it may be
possible to use oxygen to trace the sulfur cycle. Biological sulfate reduction preferentially selects
lighter oxygen isotopes for the same reason that lighter sulfur isotopes are preferred. By studying
oxygen isotopes in ocean sediments over the last 10 million years [26] were able to better
constrain the sulfur concentrations in sea water through that same time. They found that the sea
level changes due to Pliocene and Pleistocene glacial cycles changed the area of continental
shelves which then disrupted the sulfur processing, lowering the concentration of sulfate in the
sea water. This was a drastic change as compared to preglacial times before 2 million years ago.

[edit] Economic importance

Sulfur is intimately involved in production of fossil fuels and a majority of metal deposits
because of its ability to act as an oxidizing or reducing agent. The vast majority of the major
mineral deposits on Earth contain a substantial amount of sulfur including, but not limited to:
sedimentary exhalative deposits(SEDEX), Mississippi Valley-Type (MVT) and copper porphyry
deposits. Iron sulfides, galena and sphalerite will form as by-products of hydrogen sulfide
generation, as long as the respective transition or base metals are present or transported to a
sulfate reduction site.[27] If the system runs out of reactive hydrocarbons economically viable
elemental sulfur deposits may form. Sulfur also acts as a reducing agent in many natural gas
reservoirs and generally ore forming fluids have a close relationship with ancient hydrocarbon
seeps or vents.[28]

Important sources of sulfur in ore deposits are generally deep-seated, but they can also come
from local country rocks, sea water, or marine evaporites. The presence or absence of sulfur is
one of the limiting factors on both the concentration of precious metals and its precipitation from
solution. pH, temperature and especially redox states determine whether sulfides will precipitate.
Most sulfide brines will remain in concentration until they reach reducing conditions, a higher
pH or lower temperatures.

Ore fluids are generally linked to metal rich waters that have been heated within a sedimentary
basin under the elevated thermal conditions typically in extensional tectonic settings. The redox
conditions of the basin lithologies exert an important control on the redox state of the metal-
transporting fluids and deposits can form from both oxidizing and reducing fluids.[29] Metal-rich
ore fluids tend to be by necessity comparatively sulfide deficient, so a substantial portion of the
sulfide must be supplied from another source at the site of mineralization. Bacterial reduction of
seawater sulfate or a euxinic (anoxic and H2S-containing) water column is a necessary source of
that sulfide. When present, the δ34S values of barite are generally consistent with a seawater
sulfate source, suggesting barite formation by reaction between hydrothermal barium and sulfate
in ambient seawater.[30]

Once fossil fuels or precious metals are discovered and either burned or milled, the sulfur
become a waste product which must be dealt with properly or it can become a pollutant. There
has been a great increase in the amount of sulfur in our present day atmosphere because of the
burning of fossil fuels. Sulfur acts as a pollutant and an economic resource at the same time.

[edit] Human Impact

Human activities have had a major effect on the global sulfur cycle. The burning of coal, natural
gas, and other fossil fuels has greatly increased the amount of S in the atmosphere and ocean and
depleted the sedimentary rock sink. Without human impact sulfur would stay tied up in rocks for
millions of years until it was uplifted through tectonic events and then released through erosion
and weathering processes. Instead it is being drilled, pumped and burned at a steadily increasing
rate. Over the most polluted areas there has been a 30-fold increase in sulfate deposition.[31]

Although the sulfur curve shows shifts between net sulfur oxidation and net sulfur reduction in
the geologic past, the magnitude of the current human impact is probably unprecedented in the
geologic record. Human activities greatly increase the flux of sulfur to the atmosphere, some of
which is transported globally. Humans are mining coal and extracting petroleum from the Earth’s
crust at a rate that mobilizes 150 x 1012 gS/yr, which is more than double the rate of 100 years
ago.[32] The result of human impact on these processes is to increase the pool of oxidized sulfur
(SO4) in the global cycle, at the expense of the storage of reduced sulfur in the Earth’s crust.
Therefore, human activities do not cause a major change in the global pools of S, but they do
produce massive changes in the annual flux of S through the atmosphere.[33]

When SO2 is emitted as an air pollutant, it forms sulfuric acid through reactions with water in the
atmosphere. Once the acid is completely dissociated in water the pH can drop to 4.3 or lower
causing damage to both man-made and natural systems. According to the EPA acid rain is a
broad term referring to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material) from the
atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. Distilled water
(water without any dissolved constituents), which contains no carbon dioxide, has a neutral pH
of 7. Rain naturally has a slightly acidic pH of 5.6, because carbon dioxide and water in the air
react together to form carbonic acid, a very weak acid. Around Washington, D.C., however, the
average rain pH is between 4.2 and 4.4. Since pH is on a log scale dropping by 1 (the difference
between normal rain water and acid rain) has a dramatic effect on the strength of the acid. In the
United States, roughly 2/3 of all SO2 and 1/4 of all NO3 come from electric power generation that
relies on burning fossil fuels, like coal.

The Oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of oxygen within its
three main reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the total content of biological matter within the
biosphere (the global sum of all ecosystems), and the lithosphere (Earth's crust). Failures in the
oxygen cycle within the hydrosphere (the combined mass of water found on, under, and over the
surface of a planet) can result in the development of hypoxic zones. The main driving factor of
the oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, which is responsible for the modern Earth's atmosphere and
life.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Reservoirs
 2 Capacities and fluxes
 3 Ozone
 4 References

[edit] Reservoirs
By far the largest reservoir of Earth's oxygen is within the silicate and oxide minerals of the crust
and mantle (99.5%). Only a small portion has been released as free oxygen to the biosphere
(0.01%) and atmosphere (0.36%). The main source of atmospheric oxygen is photosynthesis,
which produces sugars and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water:-

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photosynthesizing organisms include the plant life of the land areas as well as the phytoplankton
of the oceans. The tiny marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus was discovered in 1986 and
accounts for more than half of the photosynthesis of the open ocean.[1]

An additional source of atmospheric oxygen comes from photolysis, whereby high energy
ultraviolet radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrous oxide into component atoms.
The free H and N atoms escape into space leaving O2 in the atmosphere:

2H2O + energy → 4H + O2

2N2O + energy → 4N + O2

The main way oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and decay, mechanisms in
which animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide.

Because lithospheric minerals are oxidised in oxygen, chemical weathering of exposed rocks
also consumes oxygen. An example of surface weathering chemistry is formation of iron-oxides
(rust):

4FeO + O2 → 2Fe2O3
 Main article: Mineral redox buffer

Oxygen is also cycled between the biosphere and lithosphere. Marine organisms in the biosphere
create calcium carbonate shell material (CaCO3) that is rich in oxygen. When the organism dies
its shell is deposited on the shallow sea floor and buried over time to create the limestone rock of
the lithosphere. Weathering processes initiated by organisms can also free oxygen from the
lithosphere. Plants and animals extract nutrient minerals from rocks and release oxygen in the
process.

[edit] Capacities and fluxes

The following tables offer estimates of oxygen cycle reservoir capacities and fluxes. These
numbers are based primarily on estimates from (Walker, J.C.G.)[2]:

Table 1: Major reservoirs involved in the oxygen cycle

Capacity Flux In/Out Residence Time

Reservoir
(kg O2) (kg O2 per year) (years)

Atmosphere 1.4 * 1018 30,000 * 1010 4,500

Biosphere 1.6 * 1016 30,000 * 1010 50

Lithosphere 2.9 * 1020 60 * 1010 500,000,000

Table 2: Annual gain and loss of atmospheric oxygen (Units of 1010 kg O2 per year)

Photosynthesis (land) 16,500

Photosynthesis (ocean) 13,500
Photolysis of N2O 1.3
Photolysis of H2O 0.03

Total Gains ~ 30,000

Losses - Respiration and Decay

 Aerobic Respiration 23,000
Microbial Oxidation 5,100
Combustion of Fossil Fuel (anthropogenic) 1,200
Photochemical Oxidation 600
Fixation of N2 by Lightning 12
Fixation of N2 by Industry (anthropogenic) 10
Oxidation of Volcanic Gases 5

Losses - Weathering

Chemical Weathering 50
Surface Reaction of O3 12

Total Losses ~ 30,000

[edit] Ozone
The presence of atmospheric oxygen has led to the formation of ozone(O3) and the ozone layer
within the stratosphere. The ozone layer is extremely important to modern life as it absorbs
harmful ultraviolet radiation:

O2 + uv energy → 2O

O + O2 → O3

The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of phosphorus
through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles,
the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus, because
phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the typical ranges of
temperature and pressure found on Earth.

The production of phosphine gas is allowed only in specialized, local conditions. Low
phosphorus (chemical symbol, P) availability retards microbial growth, which has been shown in
studies of soil microbial biomass. Soil microorganisms act as sinks and sources of available P in
the biogeochemical cycle.[1] However, the major transfers in the global cycle of P are not driven
by microbial reactions.[2] Further studies need to be performed for integrating different processes
and factors related to gross phosphorus mineralization and microbial phosphorus turnover in
general.
Ecological function

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals in the form of ions. Phosphorus is a
limiting nutrient for aquatic organisms. Phosphorus forms parts of important life sustaining
molecules but are very common in the biosphere. Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere,
remaining mostly on land and in rock and soil minerals. Eighty percent of the phosphorus is used
to make fertilizers and a type of phosphorus such as dilute phosphoric acid is used in soft drinks.
Phosphates may be effective in such ways but also causes pollution issues in lakes and streams.
Over enrichment of phosphate can lead to algae bloom, because of the excess nutrients. This
causes more algae to grow, bacteria consumes the algae and causes more bacteria to grow in
large amounts. They use all the oxygen in the water during cellular respiration, causing many
fish to die.

Phosphorus normally occurs in nature as part of a phosphate ion, consisting of a phosphorus

atom and some number of oxygen atoms, the most abundant form is orthophosphate. Most
phosphates are found as salts in ocean sediments or in rocks. Over time, geologic processes can
bring ocean sediments to land, and weathering will carry these phosphates to terrestrial habitats.
Plants absorb phosphates from the soil, then bind the phosphate into organic compounds. The
plants may then be consumed by herbivores who in turn may be consumed by carnivores. After
death, the animal or plant decays, and the phosphates are returned to the soil. Runoff may carry
them back to the ocean or they may be reincorporated into rock.

[edit] Biological Function

The primary biological importance of phosphates is as a component of nucleotides, which serve

as energy storage within cells (ATP) or when linked together, form the nucleic acids DNA and
RNA.The double helix of our DNA is only possible because of the phosphate ester bridge that
binds the helix. Besides making biomolecules phosphorus is also found in bones, whose strength
is derived from calcium phosphate in enamel of mammalian teeth; exoskeleton of insects and
phospholipids (found in all biological membranes).[3] It also functions as buffering agent in
maintaining acid base homeostasis in the human body.[4]

[edit] Process of the cycle

Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them
through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest
biogeochemical cycles.

Unlike other cycles of matter compounds, phosphorus cannot be found in air as a gas. This is
because at normal temperature and circumstances, it is a solid in the form of red and white
phosphorus. It usually cycles through water, soil and sediments. Phosphorus is typically the
limiting nutrient found in streams, lakes and fresh water environments. As rocks and sediments
gradually wear down, phosphate is released. In the atmosphere phosphorus is mainly small dust
particles.
Initially, phosphate weathers from rocks. The small losses in a terrestrial system caused by
leaching through the action of rain are balanced in the gains from weathering rocks. In soil,
phosphate is absorbed on clay surfaces and organic matter particles and becomes incorporated
(immobilized). Plants dissolve ionized forms of phosphate. Herbivores obtain phosphorus by
eating plants, and carnivores by eating herbivores. Herbivores and carnivores excrete phosphorus
as a waste product in urine and feces. Phosphorus is released back to the soil when plants or
animal matter decomposes and the cycle repeats.

[edit] Phosphorus minerals

The availability of phosphorus in ecosystem is restricted by the rate of release of this element
during weathering. The release of phosphorus from apatite dissolution is a key control on
ecosystem productivity. The primary mineral with significant phosphorus content, apatite
[Ca5(PO4)3OH] undergoes carbonation weathering releasing phosphorus contained different
forms.[2][5] This process decreases the total phosphorus in the system due to losses in runoff.

Little of thus released phosphorus is taken by biota (organic form) whereas, large proportion
reacts with other soil minerals leading to precipitation in unavailable forms. The later stage of
weathering and soil development. Available phosphorus is found in a biogeochemical cycle in
the upper soil profile, while phosphorus found at lower depths is primarily involved in
geochemical reactions with secondary minerals. Plant growth depends on the rapid root uptake of
phosphorus released from dead organic matter in the biochemical cycle. Phosphorus is limited in
supply for plant growth. Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the
processes that move them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle
overall one of the slowest biogeochemical cycles.[2][6]

Low-molecular-weight (LMW) organic acids are found in soils. They originate from the
activities of various microorganisms in soils or may be exuded from the roots of living plants.
Several of those organic acids are capable of forming stable organo-metal complexes with
various metal ions found in soil solutions. As a result, these processes may lead to the release of
inorganic phosphorus associated with aluminium, iron, and calcium in soil minerals. The
production and release of oxalic acid by mycorrhizal fungi explain their importance in
maintaining and supplying phosphorus to plant.[7][2]

The availability of organic phosphorus to support microbial, plant and animal growth depends on
the rate of their degradation to generate free phosphate. There are various enzymes such as
phosphatases, nucleases and phytase involved for the degradation. Some of the abiotic pathways
in the environment studied are hydrolytic reactions and photolytic reactions. Enzymatic
hydrolysis of organic phosphorus is an essential step in the biogeochemical phosphorus cycle,
including the phosphorus nutrition of plants and microorganisms and the transfer of organic
phosphorus from soil to water bodies.[1] Many organisms rely on the soil derived phosphorus for
their phosphorus nutrition.

[edit] Human interference

Nutrients are important to the growth and survival of living organisms, and hence, are essential
for development and maintenance of healthy ecosystems. However, excessive amounts of
nutrients, particularly phosphorus and nitrogen, are detrimental to aquatic ecosystems. Natural
eutrophication is a process by which lakes gradually age and become more productive and may
take thousands of years to progress. Cultural or anthropogenic eutrophication, however, is water
pollution caused by excessive plant nutrients, which results in excessive growth in algae
population. Surface and subsurface runoff and erosion from high-P soils may be major
contributing factors to fresh water eutrophication. The processes controlling soil P release to
surface runoff and to subsurface flow are a complex interaction between the type of P input, soil
type and management, and transport processes depending on hydrological conditions.[8][9]

Repeated application of liquid hog manure in excess to crop needs can have detrimental effects
on soil P status. In poorly drained soils or in areas where snowmelt can cause periodical
waterlogging, Fe-reducing conditions can be attained in 7–10 days. This causes a sharp increase
in P concentration in solution and P can be leached. In addition, reduction of the soil causes a
shift in phosphorus from resilient to more labile forms. This could eventually increase the
potential for P loss. This is of particular concern for the environmentally sound management of
such areas, where disposal of agricultural wastes has already become a problem. It is suggested
that the water regime of soils that are to be used for organic wastes disposal is taken into account
in the preparation of waste management regulations.[10]

Human interference in the phosphorus cycle occurs by overuse or careless use of phosphorus
fertilizers. This results in increased amounts of phosphorus as pollutants in bodies of water
resulting in eutrophication. Eutrophication devastates water ecosystems.

Eutrophication will impact the global carbon cycle, but will probably do little to offset
anthropogenic carbon emissions. Total excess input from 1600 to 3600 AD is 1860 Tg
(teragrams) of phosphorus. Given that, in the marine environment, between 106 and 170 units of
carbon are buried per unit of phosphorus one can predict that excess phosphorus would
effectively bury 76,000 to 123,000 Tg carbon. In essence, this burial removes carbon from the
atmosphere through the biological fixation of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. The present
annual rate of anthropogenic carbon addition to the atmosphere is 7900 Tg carbon, so the
phosphorus eutrophication effect would only account for about 10-15 years of anthropogenic
carbon emissions to the atmosphere over the next 2000 years (i.e. only 0.6% of total projected
carbon emissions, if emissions stay constant).

Although the net effect as a carbon sequestration mechanism is minimal, the ecological impact of
phosphorus fertilization to the ocean could be extreme. Given the other assaults on marine
ecosystems, including warming, and acidification of surface ocean waters from higher carbon
dioxide levels, it would be pure speculation to project how P eutrophication would affect
ecosystem structure and distribution in the future. However, those who have witnessed local
eutrophication in ditches, streams, ponds, and lakes can attest to the ecological devastation that
excess nutrients and the proliferation of monocultures can cause in such isolated environments.
The eutrophication of coastal and open-marine ecosystems would result in a grim future for
ecological diversity.