CHAPTER 1

Introduction and Basic Concepts

Lecture 1

1
What is Thermodynamics?

Science dealing with:

Energy and its transformations
Relationships between the properties of
substances
Rooted in Experimental Observations &
Definitions

2
What is Energy?

Capacity, either latent or apparent,

to exert a force through a distance
Capacity to produce change
has many forms -- can be converted from
naturally occurring to desired forms
Automobile changes gasoline to motion;
power plant changes coal to electricity; winch
uses electricity to hoist an object; etc.

3
THERMODYNAMIC LAWS

State Postulate
Properties of matter are functionally related
First Law -- Conservation of Energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed
Second Law -- “Quality” of Energy
Governs direction of heat flow (hot to cold) &
extent to which thermal energy (“heat”) can
be converted to mechanical energy (“work”)
4
Conservation of Energy

Conservation of energy principle (The First Law):

• Energy can be changed from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
• Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
• The first law implies that energy is a Thermodynamic property.
5
The Second Law
• The second law of
Thermodynamics asserts
that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and that
actual processes occur in
the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
Heat by itself flows only in
the direction of decreasing
temperature.

6
THERMODYNAMIC LAWS

Where do these laws come from?

Fundamental Laws of Nature

Their truth rests on the fact that in all of our
human experience, no system has ever been
found which violates them

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Classical versus Statistical
Thermodynamics
 Classical Thermodynamics
 Deals with “macroscopic behavior” of matter
 does not deal with events at molecular level
 provides a direct and easy way to the solution of engineering
problems
 Statistical Thermodynamics
 Kinetic theory & statistical mechanics
 Deals with “micro structure”
 Predicts average behavior of large number of molecules
 Only Classical Thermodynamics will be studied in
this course

8
RELEVANCE TO ME
Applications of Thermodynamics

9
RELEVANCE TO ME
Applications of Thermodynamics

10
HEAT TRANSFER

Subject dealing with Energy “in

transit” due to a temperature
difference
Three “Modes” of heat transfer
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

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Heat Transfer Modes

Conduction
Due to temperature gradient in a stationary
medium (solid or fluid)
Convection
Due to temperature difference between a
surface and a moving fluid
Radiation
Electromagnetic waves emitted by surfaces
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Difference Between Heat
Transfer & Thermodynamics

 Thermodynamics deals with relation

between “equilibrium” states of a system
 Example: Cooling of a hot object -- amount of heat
transferred between initial and final conditions
 No indication of “how long” it will take
 Heat Transfer deals with heat exchange
within a non-equilibrium system
 Determine the “rate” of heat exchange -- How long
will the process take?

13
CHAPTER 1

Lecture 2

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DIMENSIONS & UNITS

 Any physical quantity can be characterized by a

unique set of dimensions.

 The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are

called units.
 The same physical quantity can be given in different units
[e.g. person is 1.83 m (or 183 cm; or 6 feet) tall]

 Will use the International System of Units (SI)

throughout the course.
 Text uses both SI and British Units

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 DIMENSIONS & UNITS

There are seven primary or fundamental

dimensions. Mechanical Engineers
deal mostly with four fundamental
dimensions:
Length (L); Mass (M); Time (t);
and Temperature (T)
Corresponding units are meter;
kilogram; second; and kelvin.

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DIMENSIONS & UNITS

There are also secondary or derived

dimensions
They are derived from primary dimensions
Examples:
Velocity  L/t (m/s)
Acceleration  dV/dt  (L/t)/t  L/t2 (m/s2)
Force = mass x acceleration  ML/t2 (kg m/s2)  N
Work (Energy)  Force x distance  ML2/t2 (N.m)
1 joule = 1 (newton.meter) = 1 (kg m2/s2)
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Standard Prefixes in SI
Units

Examples:
1 cm = 10-2 m
1 kg = 103 g
1 ms =10-3 s
1 µK = 10-6 K
1 MJ = 106 J

18
Dimensional Homogeneity

All correct equations must be dimensionally

homogeneous.
To be dimensionally homogeneous, all terms in
an equation must have the same units
 Example: A = B x C + D / E
 A is one term
 (B x C) is one term
 (D / E) is one term

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 Dimensional Homogeneity
 Example: Calculate the total mass of an iron ball whose
density is 7900 kg/m3 and volume is 1 Liter and a wood ball
whose density is 0.7 kg/L and volume 0.002 m3

mtotal = miron + mwood

mtotal = riron x Viron + rwood x Vwood

mtotal = 7900 [kg/m3] x 1 [L] + 0.7 [kg/L] x 0.002 [m3] (wrong units)

mtotal = 7900 [kg/m3] x 1 [1/1000 m3] + 0.7 [kg/(1/1000 m3)] x 0.002 [m3]
= 7900 x 0.001 + 700 x 0.002 = 9.3 kg

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DEFINITIONS

 System: “A quantity of matter or a region

in space chosen for study.”
 Surroundings: “Matter or region outside
the system.”
 Boundary: “Real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings.”

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System, Surroundings &
Boundary

 The boundary of a system  Systems may be considered

can be fixed or movable. to be closed or open.

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CLOSED SYSTEM
(Control Mass)
 Region of constant
mass – Only energy can
cross its boundary
 Boundary may be fixed or
moving
 Special Case: “Isolated
System”
 Neither mass nor energy can
cross its boundary
 Boundary of isolated system
must be fixed

23
 OPEN SYSTEM
(Control Volume)

 Region in space where both

mass and energy may cross
its boundary
 Examples: turbine; compressor;
water heater; nozzle; jet engine;
etc.
 Mass within the system is not
necessarily constant
 Boundary (Control Surface) may be
rigid (e.g. nozzle) or moving (e.g.
IC engine cylinder)
 Boundary may be real or imaginary

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DEFINITIONS

 Property: A characteristic of the system

Extensive properties: depend on the size (i.e.
“Extent”) of the system (e.g. mass, volume, total
energy)
Extensive properties per unit mass are called
“specific properties” (e.g. specific volume, specific
total energy)
Intensive properties: independent of the size of
the system (e.g. pressure, temperature, density;
specific volume)
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INTENSIVE & EXTENSIVE
PROPERTIES

Criterion to differentiate
between intensive and
extensive properties

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Specific Properties

Specific Properties: Extensive properties

per unit mass
Specific properties are denoted by lower case
letters.
Examples: specific volume (v); specific
energy(e)
Specific properties are intensive properties

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Density & Specific Volume

 Density: mass per

unit volume
 r = m/V (kg/m3)

 Specific volume:
volume per unit mass
 v = V/m = 1/r (m3/kg)

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CHAPTER 1

Lecture 3

29
DEFINITIONS

 State: Condition of the system at an

instant of time as described or measured
by the system’s properties at that instant.

30
Thermodynamic “State” of
a System
 Consider a system where no
change is happening
 Properties can be measured
(or calculated) throughout
entire system
 If any of the properties Nitrogen
changes, the state of the Nitrogen

system changes to a different

one

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Thermodynamic
“EQUILIBRIUM”

 Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states

 “Equilibrium” implies a state of “balance”
 In an equilibrium state, there are no unbalanced
potentials (or driving forces) within the system
 A system in equilibrium experiences no change when
isolated from its surroundings
 Intensive properties are uniform throughout the system
 A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if it has
thermal, mechanical, phase, and chemical
equilibrium

32
 Elements of Thermodynamic
Equilibrium
 Thermal equilibrium: temperature is
the same throughout the entire system
 Mechanical equilibrium: there is no
change in pressure at any point of the
system with time.
 Phase equilibrium: for a system
consisting of two phases when mass of
each phase reaches an equilibrium
level and stays there.
 Chemical equilibrium: the chemical A closed system reaching thermal
composition of a system does not equilibrium.
change with time, that is, no chemical
reactions occur.

33
The State Postulate

We do not need to specify all properties

to know the state of a system
Once a sufficient number of properties are
specified, the values of other properties
are automatically fixed.

34
The State Postulate
 The number of properties required to determine
the state of a system is given by the state
postulate

The equilibrium state of a simple system is

completely specified by any two independent
intensive properties

 “Simple” = no electrical, magnetic, motion,

gravitational, or surface tension effects

35
Examples -- Suitable Properties?

 Mass & Pressure [No; mass is extensive]

 Density & specific volume [No; v = 1/r;
not independent]
 Pressure & specific volume [yes]
 Temperature & specific volume [yes]
 Pressure & temperature [yes for single
phase; No during phase change T = T(P)]

36
Example – Equilibrium
State of a Simple System

The state of nitrogen is

fixed by two independent,
intensive properties – in
this case Temperature
and Specific Volume.

37
Question

If we know two independent intensive

properties (for a given state), how do we
determine the rest of the properties?
“Equation of state”: A relationship
between properties
Example “ideal Gas”: P v = R T
How about water, refrigerants, etc. ?
We will discuss them in Chapter 3
38
Thermodynamic “Process”

System undergoes change from one

equilibrium state to another
Process “path” is the series of states
through which the system passes between
the “initial” and “final” equilibrium states
 “Quasi-equilibrium process” = very
slow process; system remains very close
to equilibrium all the time
39
Process Diagrams

40
Process Diagrams
 Process diagrams are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
 The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particular property remains constant.
 Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
 Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
 Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific The P-V diagram of a
volume v remains constant.
compression process.

41
Thermodynamic “Cycle”

A sequence of processes which return the

system to its initial state
Initial and final states are the same

42
 Steady Flow Process
 The term steady implies no
change with time.
 Steady-flow process: A
process during which a
fluid flows through a control
volume steadily.
 During a steady-flow
process, fluid properties
within the control volume
may change with position
but not with time.

43
Steady Flow Process

 Under steady-flow
conditions, the mass and
energy contents of a control
volume remain constant

44
 Steady Flow Devices

 Many engineering devices

operate for long periods of time
under the same conditions, and
they are classified as steady-
flow devices.
 EXAMPLES: turbines, jet Jet Engine
engines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers.

45
CHAPTER 1

Lecture 4

46
THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS

 Two bodies, each in thermal equilibrium with a third

body, are in thermal equilibrium with each other

BODY
(A)

BODY BODY
(B) (C)

47
THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS

 Zeroth Law offers basis for

temperature measurement
 By replacing the third body
with a thermometer, the
zeroth law can be restated as
two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading
even if they are not in BODY (A) BODY (B)
contact. 37 °C 37 °C

48
WHAT IS THE PHYSICAL MEANING OF
TEMPERATURE?

Temperature is a measurement of the overall

kinetic energy of molecules in a substance
If the overall kinetic energy of a substance is
high, its temperature is high

49
Temperature Scales
 A temperature scale is an “arbitrary” set of numbers and a
method for assigning each number to a definite
temperature
 Temperature scales are based on some easily
reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling points
of water: the ice point and the steam point.
 Ice point: A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium at
1 atmospheric pressure (0°C or 32°F).
 Steam point: A mixture of liquid water and water vapor in
equilibrium at 1 atmospheric pressure (100°C or 212°F).

50
Temperature Scales

 Celsius scale:
 Freezing point of water (@ 1 atm) = 0 C
 Boiling point of water (@ 1 atm) = 100 C

 Fahrenheit scale:
 Freezing point of water (@ 1 atm) = 32 F
 Boiling point of water (@ 1 atm) = 212 F

51
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

 Desirable to develop a temperature scale

independent of the properties of any substance
 A minimum temperature (an absolute zero) should be
defined
 There are no negative values
 Lowest possible temperature in the universe
 Kelvin Scale (SI system of units)
 Rankine Scale (English system)

52
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
 The lowest possible temperature
in the universe (absolute zero)
can be found using a device
called a constant-volume gas
thermometer.
 Experiments show that all gases
approach the same temperature
at zero pressure (vacuum)
 This temperature is the absolute
zero, and it is equal to -273.15°C

62
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

Kelvin Scale (K)

Absolute zero = 0 K
T (K) = T(C) + 273.15
Rankine Scale (R)
Absolute zero = 0 R
T (R) = T(F) + 459.67

54
Relation Between Temperature Scales

T(K) = T(C) + 273.15

T (K) = T (C)

T(R) = T(F) + 459.67

T (R) = T (F)

T(F) = 1.8 T(C) + 32

T(R) = 1.8 T(K)

55
Pressure

Force exerted by a Fluid per unit area

normal to the force
In solids the normal stress is equivalent to
pressure. Unlike solids, pressure in a fluid at a
given point has same magnitude in all directions
Units: Pressure = Force/Area = N/m2
1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 N/m2
1 kPa = 103 Pa; 1MPa = 106 Pa
1 bar = 100 kPa; 1 atm = 101.325 kPa

56
Pressure
 Pressure is sensed in gases by the forces exerted on
system boundaries due to molecular collisions
 When molecules have higher kinetic energy (i.e. higher
temperature), molecular collisions with system
boundaries become stronger  pressure is higher
 There is a proportional relationship between
temperature and pressure in gases

57
Absolute, Gage & Vacuum
Pressure

 Absolute Pressure, Pabs:

 Actual pressure at a point; measured relative to
absolute vacuum (absolute zero pressure)
 Gage Pressure, Pgage:
 Difference between absolute pressure and local
atmospheric pressure (Pgage= Pabs - Patm)
 Vacuum Pressure, Pvac:
 Difference between atmospheric pressure and
absolute pressure (Pvac= Patm - Pabs)

58
Absolute, Gage & Vacuum
Pressure

59
Absolute and Gage
Pressure

 Most pressure-
measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero
in the atmosphere, and
so they indicate gage
pressure

60