BASIC CONCEPTS OF
THERMODYNAMICS
(CHAPTER I)
KKKR1243 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS I
Prof. Ir. Dr. Siti Rozaimah Sheikh Abdullah (Set 1) &
Prof. Madya Ir. Dr. Masturah Markom (Set 2)
@ JKKP, FKAB, UKM
LEARNING OUTCOMES OF CHAPTER I
Applications of thermodynamics.
Units and dimensions in SI
(System International)
Understandings
and Knowledge
Basic concepts of system,
energy, properties, state,
process and cycles
2 important thermodynamic properties
è temperature (T) and pressure (P)
and how to measure them.
2
INTRODUCTION
therme = heat dynamics = power
thermodynamics
(Greek word)
All aspects of energy and
energy transfer including power
Ability to convert heat to production / generation,
power refrigeration and property
relation of substances
3
BASIC LAWS OF
THERMODYNAMICS
1st Law of
Thermodynamics 2nd Law of
(=Conservation of Thermodynamics
Energy Principles)
Energy can change from one Energy has its quality and
form to another form with the quantity: a real process
amount of the energy kept occurs in the decreasing
constant quality of energy.
ENERGY ENTROPY
BALANCE BALANCE
4
Air
conditioner
/ Heater
Power Refrigeratio
plants n system
APPLICATION OF
THERMODYNAMICS
Human
Airplanes
body
Car
radiator /
engines
5
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
DIMENSIONS UNITS
(= measurement of physical (= magnitudes assigned to
quantity) the dimensions)
FUNDAMENTAL / DERIVED / FUNDAMENTAL DERIVED /
PRIMARY SECONDARY / PRIMARY SECONDARY
DIMENSIONS DIMENSIONS UNITS UNITS
Length (L) Combination of a few - accompany - accompany
Time (t) primary dimensions primary derived
Temperature (T) (Eg: Velocity = dimensions dimensions
Current (I) Distance/Time = L/t)
Amount of matter (mol)
2 types of unit systems widely used:
Energy (E), Volume (V), i) English System / United States Customary Systems (USCS)
Force (F), Power (P), ii) Metric System, SI (International System)
etc.
6
Difference of Unit Systems
DIMENSIONS SI ES
Mass (m) kg lbm, oz
Length (L) m Ft, in
Time (t) s s
Temperature (T) K oC, oF, R
Amount of matter (mol) kmol lb mol
Velocity (v) ms-1 ft s-1
Energy (E) J (Joule) Btu, cal
Volume (V) m3 gal
Force (F) N (Newton) lbf
Power (Q) W (Watt) Hp
Pressure (P) N/m2 (Pascal) psia, psig
7
Difference between SI and ES
• Force= Mass x acceleration è F = ma (kgms-2)
Force (F) • SI unit è newton (N) [1 N = 1 kgm/s2]
• ES unit èpound-force (lbf) [1 lbf = 32.174 lbm.ft/s2]
Weight
• A type of force è W=mg (N)
• \Weight (W) ¹ Mass (m)
(derived) (fundamental)
(W) • Mass of a body is constant, but its weight can change depending on
gravitational acceleration (g).
• A form of energy = Force x Distance
• SI unit è Joule [1 N.m = 1 J]
Work (W) • ES unit è Btu (British Thermal Unit) [ 1 Btu = energy required to increase
the temperature of 1 lbm of water at 68oF by 1oF], [1 Btu = 1.055 kJ]
• Other unit è calorie (cal) [1 cal = energy required to increase the
temperature of 1 kg of water at 15oC by 1oC], [1 cal = 4.1868 J].
8
Standard prefixes in SI units
Prefix Multiple
tera, T 1012
giga, G 109
mega, M 106
kilo, k 103
deci, d 10-1
centi, c 10-2
milli, m 10-3
macro, µ 10-6
nano, n 10-9
pico, p 10-12
9
Dimensional Homogeneity
Dimensionally homogeneous Þ every term
in an equation must have the same unit
ADDITION, SUBTRACTION & MULTIPLICATION & DIVISION
EQUALITY OPERATIONS OPERATIONS
4 s + 1.9 s Ö (direct) N X m2 = Nm2
1 kg + 2 lb Ö (have to change kg x m2 ¹ m2
to the same unit)
s
2 m + 1.5 ft Ö (have to change
to the same unit) N x 1 ???
10.6 N + 1.4 kgms-2 ?? ? m
10
SYSTEMS
SYSTEM? Characteristics Types of systems
A quantity of matter or a
Surroundings = mass or Closed systems / control
region in space chosen for
region outside the system. mass
study
Open systems/ control
Boundary (fixed or movable)
volumes
= real or imaginary surface
that separates the system
from its surroundings.
11
Closed system
CLOSED
Characteristics è Isolated Examples
SYSTEM system
= CONTROL Contains fixed
amount of mass
MASS
and no mass can
across its
When
Closed /
boundary energy is
rigid tank
Almost all closed Energy in the not
systems remain form of heat or allowed to
work can cross
stationary during
a process (unless the boundary cross the
stated) è boundary Piston-
Stationary
systems
Volume of closed
systems does not
of closed cylinder
have to be fixed systems device
12
CLOSED SYSTEMS
Mass cannot cross the PISTON-CYLINDER DEVICE
boundaries of a closed
system, but energy can (Closed system with a moving boundary)
13
OPEN Characteristics Examples
SYSTEM
Pumps, compressor,
Both mass and valves, heat
Also known as
energy can cross its exchangers, turbines,
CONTROL VOLUMES
surface boundary. mixers, boilers,
turbines, etc.
Its volume always
fixed but its mass not
necessarily fixed.
Both mass and energy
can cross the boundaries
of control volume
14
ENERGY
Definition
• Energy = Force x Distance (Unit = N.m = J)
Variable forms
• Heat, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical and nuclear.
Total energy (E)
• Amount of all forms of energies that exist in a system.
• Total energy based on a unit mass, e (kJ/kg):
e= E
m
Division of Total Energy
• Macroscopic energies – related to motion and the influence of some external effects (eg. gravity,
magnetism, electricity, surface tension, kinetic and potential energies).
• Microscopic energies – related to the molecular structure of a system (eg. chemical, nuclear,
latent heat, sensible heat)
• S(Microscopic energies) Þ Internal energy (U)
15
System possesses as a result of
KE = mv2 [kJ ]
2
its motion relative to some
reference frame
Kinetic
energy v2 é kJ ù
Unit mass basis ke =
êë kg úû
2
MACROSCOPIC
ENERGY Potential System possesses as a result of
energy
its elevation in a gravitational PE = mgz [kJ]
field
Other forms
Gravity, magnetism, electricity,
surface tension
16
MICROSCOPIC ENERGY
• S(Microscopic energies) è Internal energy (U)
Types
- Phase change of a system such as liquid phase
changes to gas phase
- Atom bonding in a molecule in chemical reactions
- Strong bonds within the nucleus of atoms
17
TOTAL ENERGY
(DE=DU+DKE+DPE)
E = U + KE + PE = U + mV2 + mgz [kJ ]
2
[
e = u + ke + pe = u + V2 + gz kJ kg -1
2
]
MICROSCOPIC MACROSCOPIC
ENERGY ENERGY
KINETIC POTENTIAL
INTERNAL ENERGY (U) ENERGY (KE) ENERGY (PE)
CHEMICAL NUCLEAR
ENERGY ENERGY
SENSIBLE AND
LATENT HEAT
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SYSTEMS
(DE=DU+DKE+DPE)
CLOSED SYSTEM CONTROL VOLUMES
STATIONARY SYSTEM
(DKE=DPE=O èDE=DU )
ISOLATED SYSTEM
(DE=O)
19
PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
Property? • Any characteristic of a system
Examples of • Pressure (P), temperature (T), volume (V), mass (m),
viscosity, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion
property coefficient, elevation etc
• Intensive Property
Types of • Independent of the size of system (eg. T, P, r)
property • Extensive properties
• Depend on the system size (eg. m, V, E)
20
Definitions of special properties
Relative density rs or
Density (r) Specific properties
specific gravity (SG)
• Mass per unit • Ratio of the density • All extensive
volume: of a substance to the properties per unit
density of some mass. Eg:
ρ = Vm standard substance • Specific volume
at a specified (v=V/m)
• Reciprocal of
densityè specific temperature • Specific total
(usually water at energy (e=E/m)
volume, v (=volume
per unit mass) 4oC, rH2O = 1000 • Specific internal
kg/m3). energy (u=U/m)
1 V
v= =
r m SG = ρs = ρHρ O
2
21
STATE
At a given state, all properties
A set of properties that
of a system have fixed values.
completely describes the
If the value of even one
condition of a system è the
property changes, the state
state of the system.
will change to another state.
m = 2 kg m = 2 kg
T1 = 20oC T2 = 20oC
V1 = 1.5 m3 V2 = 2.5 m3
State 1 State 2
22
EQUILIBRIUM
EQUILIBRIUM ??? TYPES
• State of balance. • Thermal equilibrium if the
• No unbalanced potentials (or temperature is the same
driving forces) within the throughout the entire system.
system è experiences no • Mechanical equilibrium if there
changes when it is isolated is no change in pressure at any
from its surroundings. point of the system with time.
• Phase equilibrium when the
mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays
there such as water and ice in
equilibrium.
• Chemical equilibrium if its
chemical composition does not
change with time, that is, no
Thermal equilibrium chemical reactions occur.
23
SPECIAL PROCESS
• Processes in which one thermodynamic property is
kept constant.
PROCESS • Process Constant property
ISOBARIC Pressure (P)
• Any change that a system undergoes ISOTHERMAL Temperature (T)
from one equilibrium state to another è
Process. ISOCHORIC/ISOMETRIC Volume (V)
ISENTROPIC Entropy (S)
• Series of states through which a system
passes during a process è Process path ISENTHALPIC Enthalpy (H)
24
CYCLES
• A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state
at the end of the process è for a cycle the initial and final states are
identical.
P
2 Process A
1
Process B
25
PRESSURE
Pressure Unit
• Normal force exerted • SI : Pascal (Pa) = Nm-2
by a fluid per unit area. • ES: psi = lbf/in2
(pound-force per
Force square inch)
\ Pressure =
Area • psia = pound-force
per square inch
ÞP= F
A absolute
• psig = pound-force
• Pressure only deals
per square inch gage.
with gas or liquid.
Pressure in solids è • Other units: bar,
normal stress. standard atmosphere
(atm).
26
Pa
Pressure at any
point in a fluid is
the same in all
Pa=Pb=Pc directions
Pc
P1 P2
P1=P2¹P3
P3
Pressure varies in vertical
directions due to gravity
Pb effects but does not vary in
the horizontal directions
27
Absolute pressure, Gage pressure & Vacuum pressure
• The actual pressure at a given position è absolute pressure - measured relative
Absolute pressure to absolute vacuum (i.e. absolute zero pressure).
• Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere,
and so they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local
Gage pressure atmospheric pressure è gage pressure.
Pgage = Pabs - Patm
• Pressures below atmospheric pressure (P<Patm)è vacuum pressures -
measured by vacuum gages that indicate the difference between the
Vacuum pressure atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure:
Pvac = Patm - Pabs
• Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities.
• Must use absolute pressures in thermodynamic problems.
• In ES unit, gage pressure and absolute pressure are differentiated, but SI unit
Pressure gives identical units:
• psig (pounds force per square inch gage) and
• psia (pounds force per square inch absolute).
28
Absolute Pressure vs Gage Pressure vs Vacuum Pressure
Pvac = Patm – Pabs Pgage = Pabs – Patm
(for P<Patm) (for P>Patm)
29
PRESSURE-MEASURING DEVICES
Bourdon
Manometer Barometer
Tube
30
Manometer
The height of the fluid in the
Consists of a glass or plastic U- tube represents the pressure
tube containing one or more Measures small and moderate difference between the system
fluids such as mercury, water, pressure differences. and the surroundings of the
alcohol, or oil. manometer which is equal to
the gage pressure
Patm
Pgage = DP = P1 - Patm = ρgh
P1 = P2 = Patm + ρgh
\ Pgas = Patm + ρgh
31
BAROMETER
Barometric Pressure
Consists of a mercury-
filled tube inverted Measures atmospheric
into a mercury pressure è
container that is open The height and cross-
\Atmospheric sectional area of the
to the atmosphere pressure = Barometric
(Figure 1). tube does not affect the
pressure.
height of the liquid in
the barometer tube
(Figure 2). Why???
C
Mercury weight at A = Force due to Patm
A h W = Patm A
h
W=rghA ρghA = Patm A
B \ Patm = ρgh A1 A2 A3
Mercury
Patm Mercury Figure 2
Figure 1
32
Bourdon Tubes
Another type of commonly used
mechanical pressure measurement device.
Consists of a hollow metal tube bent like a
hook whose end is closed and connected to
a dial indicator needle.
Calibrated to read zero, so it measures
gage pressure.
Modern pressure sensors è pressure
transducers - convert the pressure effect
to an electrical effect such as a change in
voltage, resistance, or capacitance.
• smaller and faster, and they can be more
sensitive, reliable, and precise. Types of Bourdon Tubes
33
TEMPERATURE
• Temperature is one of the thermodynamic properties - a
Temperature measure of “hotness” or “coldness” or the energy content
of a body.
• When heat is transferred to a body, E è T.
• The temperature difference causes the heat transfer from a
Heat hot body (with T) to an another cold body (with ¯T).
• Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium when both of the
bodies achieve similar temperature.
• Similar to pressure, temperature applied in thermodynamic
Absolute problems must be in absolute units.
Temperature • Absolute temperature scale in SI unit is Kelvin and Rankine
in unit ES.
34
Temperature scales
Property SI ES
Temperature scale oC oF
Absolute temperature scale K R
Freezing / melting point 0oC 32oF
Boiling point 100oC 212oF
Relation between temperature scales:
T(oF) = 1.8T(oC) + 32 (oC to oF)
T(K) = T(oC) + 273.15 (oC to K)
T(R) = T(oF) + 459.67 (oF to R)
T(R) = 1.8T(K) (K to R)
35
Kelvin vs Celcius
Magnitude for each part of 1 K and 1°C is similar
( ( ) ) ( ( )
DT (K ) = T2 oC + 273.15 - T1 oC + 273.15 )
DT (K ) = T ( C ) - T ( C )
2
o
1
o
\ DT (K ) = DT ( C )
o
Similar case with 1 R and 1°F
( )
DT (R ) = DT o F
36
SYSTEMATIC PROBLEM SOLVING
Read and understand the requirement of the problem
Draw a simple sketch of the physical system involved, and list the given and hidden
information on the sketch
State any appropriate assumptions and approximations made to simplify the problem – eg.
Ideal gas , Patm= 1 atm, Troom=25oC etc.
Determine the unknown properties at known states necessary to solve the problem from
property relations or tables / figures
Determine the process and sketch the process on property figures such as P-v or T-v
Apply all the relevant basic physical laws and principles (eg. Mass balance, energy balance,
force balance or entropy balance)
Substitute the known quantities into the simplified relations and perform the calculations to
determine the unknowns
Reasoning, verification and discussion 37
Examples of Problem Statement
▪ A sealed rigid vessel has volume of 1 m3 and contains 2 kg of
water at 100oC. The vessel is now heated. If a safety pressure valve
is installed, at what pressure should the valve be set to have a
maximum temperature of 200oC?
▪ Water at 120oC with a quality of 25% has its temperature raised
20oC in an isobaric process. What is the new quality and volume?
38
SUMMARY OF CHAPTER I
Applications of Units and Basic 2 important
thermodynamics dimensions concepts thermodynamic properties
Refrigerator
Dimensions System Temperature (T)
/ Aircond
Airplane Units Energy Pressure (P)
Car Units in SI How to measure
radiators Properties them?
(System
International)
Power and English
plants State
System (ES)
Etc. Process
Cycles
39
